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HISTORICAL VIEW 



THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY ON THE MORE 
NORTHERN COASTS 



AMERICA, 

FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



BY PATRICK FRASER TYTLER, ESQ., 
R.S. AND F.S.A. 



DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY 
OF THE NORTH AMERICAN REGIONS. 

BY JAMES WILSON, ESQ., F.R.S.E. AND M W.S. 

To which is added an Appendix, containing 

REMARKS ON A LATE MEMOIR OP SEBASTIAN CABOT, WITH A 
VINDICATION OF RICHARD HAKLUYT. 



ILLUSTRATED BY A MAP AND NINK ENGRAVINGS. 



NEW YORK • 
tIARPER & BROTHERS, 

NO. 82 CLIFF-STRKST 



183 6. 



COfA/ % 



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PREFACE 

TO 

THE AMERICAN EDITION. 



Of all the various expeditions of discovery by 
land or sea that have been undertaken within^ the 
present century, none have received a larger share 
of attention, or been considered of more importance, 
than those which had for their object the extension 
of knowledge respecting the Arctic Regions. In 
no other portion of the earth's surface has the navi- 
gator to contend with such formidable impediments, 
or behold so peculiar an aspect of nature. The 
conductors of the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, one 
of the most able and useful series that has issued 
from the British press, selected the Polar Seas and 
Regions as the subject of their first volume (repub- 
lished in the United States as No. XIV. of the 
Family Library), and the popularity of the work 
affords a strong evidence of the interest excited by 
its contents. 

In that volume, however, the subject was but 
commenced ; the most important intelligence from 
those distant and, until now, almost unknown re- 
gions has been procured by later and more success- 
A2 



6 PREFACE. 

ful voyagers than those whose labours were there 
descrii3ed : we allude to the expeditions, partly by 
land and partly by river and coast navigation, to 
ascertain the limits of North America where the 
continent borders upon the Arctic circle. The 
scenery is of the same grand and impressive char- 
acter, and the adventurers were exposed to hazards 
if possible still more striking than those encountered 
by the bold explorers of the polar regions. Their 
investigations too have made us acquainted with 
numerous objects, not only of the highest interest 
to the zoological obsei-ver, but of great value as the 
materials of an extensive commerce. The present 
volume therefore, originally published in the same 
excellent collection, exhibiting a full and accurate 
view of all that is important in modern knowledge 
of the most remote territories of North America, 
may be considered as forming a sequel to the " Polar 
Seas and Regions," and furnishing all that was 
wanting to a complete account of the whole series 
of northern discoveries by land and water. 

Of this work the historical and critical depart- 
ments have been contributed by Patrick Fraser 
Tytler, Esq., the distinguished author of the His- 
tory of Scotland, and the natural history by James 
Wilson, Esq., — two gentlemen whose names, the 
publishers are confident, furnish a sufficient guar- 
antee that the task committed to them has been 
executed with care. The high qualifications of 
Mr. Wilson, the American reader has already had 
ample opportunities to appreciate ; and we may add 
that, from his intimate acquaintance and correspond- 



PREFACE. 7 

ence with Dr. Richardson, whose name stands so 
high among the explorers of the northern regions, 
he has enjoyed pecuhar advantages in preparing tlie 
interesting sketches now submitted to the pubUc. 
The student of natural history who has perused the 
summaries of African and Indian zoology contained 
in the 47th, 48th, and 49th numbers of the Family 
Library, will not fail to perceive their increased 
value when examined in connexion with that now 
given, inasmuch as they afford the materials of a 
comparative view of the animal kingdom in three 
principal divisions of our globe, and thereby throw 
a valuable light on the subject of zoological geog- 
raphy, which has recently excited the attention of 
the scientific world. 

The map has been constructed with the greatest 
care : it comprehends all the recent discoveries on 
the northern boundary of America, and fully exhibits 
the routes of the different travellers and navigators 
whose adventures are recorded in the text. The 
engravings illustrate several striking specimens of 
natural history, drawn chiefly from nature, and other 
objects characteristic of that quarter of the globe. 

New-York, January , 1833. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA— KARLY VOYAGES OF THE PORTO 
GUKSK, FRENCH, AND SFANIAKDS. 

First Discovery of North America by John Cabot— Voyages of Sebastian 
Cabot — Of the Cortereals-Discovtry of Labrador — French Discoveries 
—Voyages of Verazzano— Of Jacques Cartier— Discovery of Canada- 
Spanish Voyages of Discovery — Cortes — Ulloa — Alarchon — Vis- 
caino Page 13 

CHAPTER n. 

RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH VOYAGES. 

Behrlng— Tchirikow— Cook and Clerke — Meares- Vancouver— Kotze 
bue 58 

CHAPTER ni. 

HEARNE AND SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE. 

Colonization of Canada— French Fur Trade— Rise of Hudson's Bay 
Company — Hearne's Three Journeys — North-west Fur Company — 
First Journey of Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789— His Second Expe- 
dition in 1792 97 



CHAPTER IV. 

DISCOVERIES ALONG THE SHORES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN. 

First and Second Expeditions of Franklin— Voyage of Capt. Beechey 149 
CHAPTER V 

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS TO THE NATURAL HISTORY. 

Amelioration in the Character of European Intercourse with uncivil- 
ized Nations— The Absence of Sandy Deserts a grand Feature in the 
Physical Attributes of America— General Boundaries of the Districts 



10 CONTENTS. 

afterwar.i rrnated of in Deinil— Early Sources of Toformation rejiard 
ingthc Natural History of North America— Gfineral View of the Fur- 
countries— Passages across the Rocky Mountains— Plains and Valleys 
along the Pacilic Shore 210 

CHAPTER VI 

THE QITADKUI'KDS OF THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF AMERICA. 

Inaccuracies of some Historical Writers— No Monkeys in North America 
— Bats— Shrewrnice— Genus Scalops, or Shrewmole— Other Moles of 
America— The Star-nose— Various Bears— Different digitated Quadru- 
peds—The Canada Otter— The Sea-otter— The Dogs and Wolves of 
America — The Foxes — The Beaver — The Musk-rat — Meadow Mice and 
I.emminjrs— The Rocky Mountain N< otoma— The American Field- 
mouse — The Marmots — The Squirrel Tribe — The Canada Porcupine — 
The American Hare— The Polar Hare— The Prairie Hare— The Little 
Chief Hare— Genus Cervus— The Elk, or Moose-deer — The Reindeer 
— The Woodland Caribou — The Rocky Mountain Sheep— The Rocky 
Mountain Goat — The Bison, or American BuiTalo — The Musk-ox. . 230 

CHAPTER Vn. 

THE BIRDS OF THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF AMERICA. 

Turkey-buzzard— Golden-eagle— Bald-eagle— Hawks— Owls— Butcher- 
birds — Kinff-bird — Northern Tyrant — American Water-ouzel— Red- 
breasted Thrush — Blue-bird— Arctic Blue-bird — Cedar-bird, or Ameri- 
can Chatterer — Snow-bunting — Painted Bunting — Pine-grosbeak— 
Evening-grosbeak — Scarlet Tanager — Cuckoo-bunting — Crows — 
Woodpeckers — Humming-birds — Swallows — Belted Kingfisher — 
Grouse — Passenger-pigeon — Grallatores — Natatores — Gulls — Rocky 
Mountain Golden-eye — Bewick's Swan— Trumpeter-swan — White Pel- 
ican— Great Northern Diver— Black-throated Diver- Guillemots. . 274 



CHAPTER Vni. 

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FISHES AND OTHER ZOOLOGICAL PRODUC- 
TIONS OF THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF AMERICA. 

Sturgeon— Salmon— Trout— Char— Capelan— White Fish— Blue Fish- 
Herring— Pike— Burbot- -Perch- Bull-head— Northern Insects— Their 
Natural Preservation fromCold— More Northern Extension of Tropical 
Forms in America than in Europe— Bees— Extension Westwards of 
the Honey-bee— Diptera— Melville Island Spider— Butterflies... . 300 

CHAPTER IX. 

CHARACTERISTIC FEATrRES IN THE BOTANY OF THE NORTHERN 
REGIONS OF AMERICA. 

Mr. Brown's Observations on the relative Proportions of the two great 
Divisions of Pliaenogamous Plants- Beautiful small Willow from East 



CONTENTS. 11 

Greenland — Notices of the more remarkable Species collected by Dr. 
Richardson — Galium Tinctorium -Cornus Alha — Phlox Hoodii— Vi- 
burnum Edule — Azalea Nudicaulls— Lilium Philadelphicum— Epilo- 
bium Au£;ustifolium — Ledum laiifolium — L. I'alustre— Prunus Viru;i- 
niana — Pyrus Ovalis— Crepis Nana— Cineraria Congesta — Pinus Nigra 
— P. Alba— P. Banksiana — P. Microcarpa— P. Lambertiana— Empe- 
trum Nigrum— Myrica Gale— Populus Trepida — Populus Balsainifera 
— Juniperus Prostrata— Splachnum Mnioides— Dicranum Elongatuin 
— Gyrophora proboscidea — Hyperborea Pennsylvaniea, Mecklenbergii, 
vellea — Cetraria Richardson:! — Fucus Ceranoides— Difficulties in the 
Determination of Arctic Species— Plants recently introduced to the 
British Gardens— Lathyrus Decaphyllus — Eutoca Franklinii— Lupinus 
Littoralis— Clarkia Pulchella— Gerard ia Capitata— New Dodecatheoii 
— Andromeda Tetragona — Menziesia Empetrifolia— Azalea Lapponica 
— Dryas Drummondia 30t> 

CHAPTER X. 

SKETCH OF THE GKOtOGICAL FEATURES OF SOME OF THE NORTHERN 
DISTRICTS OF AMKRICA. 

Frozen Subsoil of Hudson's Bay — Primitive Rocks of Hayes River — 
Hill River — Borders of Knee Lake — Remarkable Rock-island of Mag- 
netic Iron Ore — Lake Winipcg — Limestone District — Fort Chijjewyan 
— Carp Lake — Gneiss Formation of the Barren Grounds — Trans{)are7it 
Waters of Great Bear Lake— Fort Franklin— Bear Lake River— Lig- 
nite Formation of Mackenzie River — Spontaneous Fire — Vipe Clay— 
Alluvial Islands at the Mouib of the Mackenzie — Copper Mountains — 
Coppermine River — Islands of the Arctic Sea — Arctic Shore — Cape 
Barrow — Galena Point— Moore's Bay— Bankes's Peninsula — Barry's 
Island — Cape Croker— Point Turnagain — General Occurrence of the 
New Red Sand Stone — Hood's River — Wiiberforce Falls — Gneiss For- 
mation—General Summary 320 

APPENDIX. 

Remarks on a late Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with a Vinpi- 
CATioN OF Richard Hakluyt 333 



ENGRAVINGS. 



Map of tho Northern Coasts of America To fact the VignetU 

ViaNKTTE— Scene near Mount Coplestone, or Western Termination 
of the Rocky Mountains. 

Portrait of Hernan Cortes Page Sff 

Group of Esquimaux west of the Mackenzie River 192 

Grizzly Bear 238 

American Gray Wolf 24& 

Hare Indian or Mackenzie River Dog 249 

Head of the American Black Elk 263 

Rocky Mountain Goat, and Rocky Mountain Sheep 267 

(Sabine's Gull ...297 



PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY 

ON THE 

MORE NORTHERN COASTS 

OF 

AMERICA. 



CHAPTER I. 

Discovery of North America — Early Voyages of the Portu* 
guese, French, and Spaniards. 

First Discovery of North America by John Cabot — Voyages of Sebastian 
Cabot— Of the Cortereals— Disrovery of Labrador— French Discov- 
eries—Voyages of Verazzano— Of Jacques Carrier— Discovery of Can- 
ada— Spanish Voyages of Discovery — Cortes — Ulloa— Alarchon — Vis- 
caiuo. 

When we peruse the lives of such men as De Gama and 
Columbus, and consider the complicated difficulties over- 
come by these early navigators, their imperfect means, and 
the dark and defective state of their knowledge, it is difficult 
to repress astonishment at the success- which attended their 
exertions, and the magnitude and splendour of their discov- 
eries. In reflecting, indeed, upon so great a theme as the 
revelation of a new world, it becomes us to raise our minds 
from the region of second causes to the awful contempla- 
tion of that Almighty Being who confounds the calcula- 
tions of man by bringing stupendous results out of the 
feeblest human preparations ; and it is one of the finest 
features in the character of Columbus, that he invariably 
acted under the conviction of being selected by God for the 
task which he at length accomplished ; but the admiration 
B 



14 COLUMBUS. 

with which we regard this great man, and that belongs, 
though in an inferior degree, to many of his contempora- 
ries in the field of discovery, is enhanced rather than dimin- 
ished by this union of simple and primitive faith with ar- 
dent genius and undaunted resolution. 

A former volume has been devoted to the description of 
the daring efforts which have been made to explore the Polar 
Seas ; and we now proceed to direct our attention to another, 
and no less interesting and important chapter in the history 
of human enterprise, — the discovery of North America, and 
the progress of maritime adventure on the more northern 
coasts of this vast continent. Without detracting in any 
degree from the fame of Columbus, it may be mentioned as 
a remarkable circumstance, that although the admiral landed 
in Hispaniola as early as the 4ih of February, 1493, he did 
not ascertain the existence of the continent of South America 
till the 30th of May, 1498 ; while there is certain evidence 
that, almost a year before, an English vessel had reached 
the shores of North America. As much obscurity hangs 
over the circumstances of this early voyage, and as I have 
arrived at a conclusion completely at variance with that 
adopted by a late acute writer,* it will be necessary to dwell 
with some minuteness on the history of this great event. 

The attention paid to navigation by the commercial states 
of Italy, and especially by the republics of Genoa and 
Venice, is familiar to all acquainted with the history of 
Europe during the fifteenth century. Italian merchants and 
agents of opulent commercial houses were found settled in 
every European state ; and the impetus communicated to 
the human mind by the discoveries of the Portuguese and 
the Spaniards rendered the sciences of cosmography and 
navigation the most popular subjects of instruction which 
were taught in the schools. A devotion to them became 
fashionable among the noble and ardent youths, who asso- 
ciated with them all that was romantic and delightful ; 

* The author of the Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 50, 51, an anony- 
mous work, which contains much ingenious criticism and valuable 
research. It is, however, unhappily confused in its arrangement, and 
written throughout in a tone of asperity which, in the discussion of a 
subject of remote biography, is unpleasant and uncalled for. The author 
has been unjustly severe in his animadversions on the labours of Hak- 
luyt, of whom a brief Vindication will be found at the end of this volume 



JOHN CABOT. 15 

mey were considered as the certain guides to daring and 
successful maritime adventure, and the handmaids to 
wealth and fame. It was about this momentous period, in 
the year 1494, that we find a Venetian, named John Ccbot, 
or Gabota, residing in the opulent city of Bristol. At what 
precise time he settled in England is not now discoverable ; 
we only know that he left Italy for the purpose of devoting 
himself to the mercantile profession. He was one of those 
enthusiastic spirits upon whom the career of Columbus made 
a deep impression ; and about a year after the return of the 
great Genoese from his first voyage, the merchant of Bristol 
appears to have embraced the idea that new lands might be 
discovered in the north-west, and a passage in all probability 
attained by this course to India.* Animated by such a 
project, Cabot addressed himself to Henry VII., and found 
immediate encouragement from that monarch, who, though 
of a cold and cautious disposition, was seldom slow to listen 
to any proposal which promised an increase of wealth to 
his exchequer. On the 5th of March, 1 495, the king granted 
his royal commission to John Cabot, citizen of Venice, and 
his sons, Louis, Sebastian, and Sanchez, committing to him 
and them, and to their heirs and deputies, full authority to 
sail to all countries and seas of the east, west, and north, 
under the banner of England, with five ships, of whatever 
burden and strength in mariners they might choose to em- 
ploy. The equipment of this squadron was cautiously stip- 
ulated to be made " at their own proper costs and charges ;" 
and its object stated to be the discovery of the isles, regions, 
and provinces of the heathen and infidels which hitherto had 
been unknown to all the nations of Christendom, in what- 
ever part of the globe thev might be placed. By the same 
deed the Cabots were emi >;wered to set up the banners and 
ensigns of England in the newly-discovered countries ; to 
subdue and possess them as lieutenants of the king ; and 
to enjoy the privilege of exclusive trade : the wary mon- 
arch, however, annexing to these privileges the condition, 
that he was to receive the fifth part of the capital gain upon 
every voyage, and binding their ships to return to the port 
of Bristol.! 

♦ Tiraboschi, Storia della Letter. Ital., vol. vi. b. i. cap. 6. $ 24. 
t I have nearly followed the words of this important document, which 
is still preserved. Rymer, Fcedera Angliae, vol. xii. p. 595, 



16 JOHN CABOT DISCOVERS NORTH AMERICA. 

Two important facts are ascertained by this authentic 
document : it proves that John Cabot, a citizen of Venice, 
was the principal author of, and adventurer ui, the project ; 
and that no voyage with a similar object had been undertaken 
prior to the 5th of March, 1495. 

The expedition, however, did not sail till the spring of 
1497, more than a twelvemonth subsequent to the date of 
the original commission. What occasioned this delay it is 
now difficult to determine ; but as the fleet was to be 
equipped at the sole expense of the adventurers, it is not 
improbable that Cabot had required the interval to raise the 
necessary capital. It is much to be regretted that in no 
contemporary chronicle is there any detailed account of the 
voyage. We know, however, that it was conducted by 
John Cabot in person, who took with him hi? son Sebastian, 
then a very young man. Its result was undoubtedly the 
discovery of North America ; and although the particulars of 
this great event are lost, its exact date has been recorded by 
an unexceptionable witness, not only to a day, but even to 
an hour. On an ancient map, drawn by Sebastian Cabot, 
the son, whose name appears in the commission by the king, 
engraved by Clement Adams, a contemporary, and pub- 
lished, as there is reason to believe, under the eye of Sebas- 
tian, was written in Latin the following brief but clear and 
satisfactory account of the discovery : — "In the year of our 
Lord 1497, John Cabot, a Venetian, and his son Sebastian, 
discovered that country, which no one before his time had 
ventured to approach, on the 24th of June, about five 
o'clock in the morning. He called the land Terra Primum 
Visa, because, as I conjecture, this was the place that first 
met his eyes in looking from the sea. On the contrary, the 
island which lies opposite the land he called the Island of 
St. John, — as I suppose, because it was discovered on the 
festival of St. John the Baptist. The inhabitants wear 
beasts' skins and the intestines of animals for clothing, es- 
teeming them as highly as we do our most precious gar- 
ments. In war their weapons are the bow and arrow, 
spears, darts, slings, and wooden clubs. The country is 
Bteril and uncultivated, producing no fruit ; from which 
circumstance it happens that it is crowded with white bears, 
and stags of an unusual height and size. It yields plenty 



DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 17 

of fish, and these very large ; such as seals and salmon ; 
there are soles also above an ell in length ; but especially 
great abundance of that kind of fish called in the vulgar 
tongue baccalaos. In the same island, also, breed hawks, 
so black in their colour that they wonderfully resemble 
ravens ; besides which there are partridges and eagles of 
dark plumage."* 

Such is the notice of the discovery of North America ; 
and as some doubt has lately been thrown upon the subject, 
it may be remarked that the evidence of the fact contained in 
this inscription is perfectly unexceptionable. It comes from 
Clement Adams, the intimate friend of Richard Chancelor ; 
and Chancelor lived, as is well known, in habits of daily inter- 
course with Sebastian Cabot, who accompanied his father on 
the first voyage of discovery. Unfortunately, both the original 
map and the engraving are lost ; but happily Purchas has 
presei-ved the information that the engraved map by Adams 
bore the date of 1549 ;t at which time Sebastian Cabot was 
in such great reputation at the court of Edward VI., that 
for his services he had received a princely pension. This 
young monarch, as we learn from Burnet, showed a peculiar 
fondness for maritime aflfairs. He possessed a collection of 
charts, which were hung up in his cabinet, and among 
them was the engraving of Cabot's map. The inscription, 
therefore, must have been seen there and elsewhere by 
Sebastian ; and, when we consider that the date of the en- 
graving corresponds with the time when he was in high 
favour with the king, it does not seem improbable that this 
navigator, to gratify his youthful and royal patron, employed 
Adams to engrave from his own chart the map of North 
America, and that the facts stated in the inscription were 
furnished by himself The singular minuteness of its terms 
seems to prove this ; for who but he, or some one personally 
present, after the lapse of fifty-two years, could have com- 
municated the information that the discovery was made 
about five o'clock in the morning of the 24th June ? If, 
however, this is questioned as being conjectural, the fact that 
Sebastian must have seen the inscription is sufficient to 
render the evidence perfectly conclusive upon the important 
point of John Cabot being the discoverer of North America 

* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 6. t Purchas's Pilgrims, vol. iii p. 807, 

B2 



18 DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 

That he had along with him in his ship his son Sebastian 
cannot, we think, in the opinion of any impartial person, 
detract from or infringe upon the merit of the father. But, 
to complete the proof, a late writer has availed himself of 
an imperfect extract from a record of the rolls, furnished by 
the industrious Hakluyt, to discover an original document 
which sets the matter altogether at rest. This is the second 
commission for discovery, granted by Henry VII. on the 3d 
of February, and in the thirteenth year of his reign, to 
the same individual who conducted the first expedition. The 
letters are directed to John Kabotto, Venetian, and permit 
him to sail with six ships " to the land and' isles of late 
found by the said John in our name and by our command- 
ment."* It presents a singular picture of the inability of 
an ingenious and otherwise acute mind to estimate the 
weight of historical evidence, when we find the biographer 
of Sebastian Cabot insisting, in the face of such a proof as 
this, that the glory of the first discovery of North America 
is solely due to Sebastian, and that it may actually be doubted 
whether his father accompanied the expedition at all.f 

Immediately after the discovery the elder Cabot appears 
to have returned to England ; and on the 10th of August we 
find, in the privy purse expenses of Henry VII., the sum 
of ten pounds awarded to him who found the New Isle, 
which was probably the name then given to Newfoundland. 
Although much engrossed at this moment with the troubles 
which arose in his kingdom in consequence of the Cornish 
rebellion, the war with Scotland, and the attempt upon the 
crown by Perkin Warbeck, the king determined to pursue 
the enterprise, and to encourage a scheme for colonization 
under the conduct of the original discoverer. To this enter- 
prising navigator he, on the 3d of February, 1497,t granted 
those second letters-patent just alluded to, which conferred 
an ampler authority and more favourable terms than the first 
commission. He empowered John Kabotto, Venetian, to 
take at his pleasure six English ships, with their necessary- 
apparel, and to lead them to the land and isles lately found 
by him according to the royal command. Cabot was also 
permitted to receive on board all such masters, mariners, 



* Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 76. f Ibid. p. 50. 

i Old style,— 1498, new style. 



SEBASTIAN CABOT. 19 

pages, and other subjects, as chose to accompany him ; 
and it seems probable, from some entries in the privy purse 
expenses, that Launcelot Thirkill of London, Thomas Brad- 
ley, and John Carter, embarked in the adventure.* 

When about to set sail on his second voyage, John Cabot, 
who had previously received from Henry the honour of 
knighthood, appears, from some cause not now discoverable, 
to have been prevented frum taking the command ;t and 
though the name of Sebastian was not included in the 
second royal commission, he was promoted to the situation 
left vacant by his father. He must still indeed have been a 
young man ; but he had accompanied the first voyage, and 
at an early age developed that genius for naval enterprise 
which afterward so remarkably distinguished him. We 
know from his account of himself that, at the time his 
parents carried him from Venice to London, he had attained 
some knowledge of the sphere ; and when about this period 
the great discovery of Columbus began to be talked of in 
England as a thing almost more divine than human, the 
effect of it upon his youthful imagination was to excite " a 
mighty longing," to use his own words, " and burning desire 
in his heart that he too should perform some illustrious 
action."t With such dispositions we may easily imagine 
how rapid must have been his progress in naval science, 
with the benefit of his father's example and instructions. 
It is not matter of surprise, therefore, that, though probably 
not more than twenty-three years old, the conduct of the 
enterprise was intrusted to him. He accordingly sailed from 
England with two ships in the summer of 1498, and directing 
his course by Iceland soon reached Newfoundland, which 
he called Terra de Baccalaos, from the great quantity of fish 
of ih-At name. 

Of this remarkable voyage a short account is preserved by 
Peter Martyr, the historian of the New World, a writer of 
high authority, and so intimate a friend of the navigator, 



* See Mr. Nicholas's excellent collection entitled Excerpta Historica, 
p. 116, 117. 

T The cause might be his death ; but this is conjecture,— of the fact 
there is no direct proof; of (he knighthood ii is not possible to doubt. 
See, in the Vindication of Hakluyt, the remarks on the errors of the biog« 
rapher of Cabot in his chapter on this subject. 

I Ra[nusio,Viaggi, vol. i. p. 414. 



20 SEBASTIAN CABOT. 

that, at the time he wrote the passage which we now give, 
Sebastian was in the habit of paying him frequent visits at 
his house. " These northern seas," says this writer, " have 
been navigated and explored by Sebastian Cabot, a Vene- 
tian by birth, whom his parents, when they were setting out 
to settle in Britain, according to the common custom of the 
Venetians, who for the sake of commercial adventure be- 
come citizens of every country, carried along with them 
when he was little more than an infant.* He fitted out two 
ships in England at his own charges, and first with three 
hundred men directed his course so far towards the North 
Pole, that even in the month of July he found great heaps 
of ice swimming in the sea, and almost continual daylight. 
Yet he saw the land free from ice, which had been melted 
by the heat of the sun. Thus, observing such masses of ice 
before him, he was compelled to turn his sails and follow 
the west ; and, coasting still by the shore, was brought so 
far into the south, by reason of the land bending much to 
the southward, that it was there almost equal in latitude 
with the sea called Fretum Herculeum. He sailed to the 
west till he had the Island of Cuba on his left-hand, almost 
in the same longitude. As he passed along those coasts, 
called by him Baccalaos, he affirmed that he found the same 
current of the waters towards the west which the Spaniards 
met with in the southern navigations, with the single differ- 
ence that they flowed more gently. From this circum- 
stance it appears to me," says Martyr, " not only a probable, 
but an almost necessary conclusion, that there must exist, 
between both the continents, hitherto unknown, great gaps 
or open places, through which the waters continually pass 
from the east to the west. * * * Sebastian Cabot him- 
self named these lands Baccalaos, because in the seas 
thereabout he found such an immense multitude of large 
fish like tunnies, called baccalaos by the natives, that they 
actually impeded the sailing of his ships. He found also 
the inhabitants of these regions covered with beasts' skins, 
yet not without the use of reason. He also relates that 
there are plenty of bears in these parts, which feed upon 

* Cabot was born in England, and carried by his father into Italy when 
'our years old. He was afterward brought back to England when a 
youth, " assai glovane."— Ramusio, vol. i. p. 414. Memoir of Cabot, 
p. 69 



martyr's account of his voyage. 21 

fish. It. is the practice of these animals to throw themselves 
into the midst of the shoals of fish, and each seizing his 
prey, to bury their claws in the scales, drag them to land, 
and there devour them. On this account, he says, that these 
bears meddle little with men. * * * Cabot is my inti- 
mate friend, and one whom it is my delight to have frequently 
under my roof; for, being called out of England by the 
command of the King of Castile after the death of Henry 
VII., he was made one of our council and assistants relating 
to the affairs of the new Indies ; and he looks daily for ships 
to be fitted out for him that he may discover this hidden 
secret of nature. I expect," concludes Peter Martyr, " that 
he will be able to set out on his voyage during the course 
of the next year, 1516, and in the month of March."* 
When it is known that Sebastian Cabot's second voyagef 
from England to North America did not take place till 1517, 
it becomes certain that the above passage, written in 1515, 
must relate to the expedition of 1498 ; and remembering 
that the author was personally intimate with this navigator, 
•and wrote only seventeen years after the voyage had taken 
place, we are inclined to set a high value on such an authority. 
It is deeply to be regretted that the original maps drawn by 
so eminent a discoverer, and the discourses with which he 
illustrated them, are now lost ;t but in this deficiency of 
original materials the work of Ramusio, — a collector of 
voyages who was a contemporary of Cabot, — supplies some 
valuable information. 

In the first volume of his Voyages this amusing writer 
has introduced a discourse upon the different routes by 
which the spices of the East were conveyed in ancient times 
to Europe ; and towards the conclusion of the essay he brings 
in a subject which then deeply occupied the attention of 
learned men, — the project, namely, for discovering a passage 
to the kingdom of Cathay and the coasts of India, by the 

* Peter Martvr, De Orbe Novo, 3d decad. cap. 6. Edition by Hakluyt 
p. 232.— Eden's Translation in Willes's Hist, of Travayle, p. 125.— The 
hidden secret, or natural phenomenon, of which Cabot was expected to 
penetrate the cause, is stated by iVIartyr at p. 231,— it was to resolve the 
question, " Why the seas in these parts run with so swift a current 
from the east to the west ?" 

t Although the son accompanied the father, I consider the voyage at 
1497 as solely conducted by John Cabot. 

X Memoir of Cabot, p. 41. 



22 RAMUsio : 

north-west. In the discussion of this point, Ramusio mi- 
nutely describes a conversation which took place at the villa 
of the celebrated Italian physician and poet Fracastoro, 
between Ramusio himself, Fracastoro, an architect named 
St. Michael, and a certain philosopher and mathematician, 
who gave them an account of an interview which he once 
had with Sebastian Cabot in the city of Seville. The 
whole passage is interesting, whether we look to the infor- 
mation regarding Cabot, or to the pleasing picture it brings 
before us of the great Fracastoro in his philosophic and 
classical retreat at Caphi. No apology, therefore, need be 
made for presenting it to the reader. " Having thus given 
you," says the Italian writer, " all that I could extract 
from ancient and modern authors upon this subject, it 
would be inexcusable in me if I did not relate a high and 
admirable discourse which some few months ago it was my 
good fortune to hear, in company with the excellent architect 
Michael de St. Michael, in the sweet and romantic country- 
seat of Hieronymo Fracastoro, named Caphi, situated near 
Verona, while we sat on the top of a hill commanding a 
view of the whole of the Lago di Garda. * * * Being then, 
as I said, at Caphi, where we had gone to visit our excellent 
friend Hieronymo, we found him on our arrival sitting in 
company with a certain gentleman, whose name, from mo- 
tives of delicacy and respect, I conceal. He was, however, 
a profound philosopher and mathematician, and at that 
moment engaged in exhibiting to Fracastoro an instrument 
lately constructed to show a new motion of the heavens. 
Having reasoned upon this point for a long time, they by 
way of recreation caused a large globe, upon which the 
world was minutely laid down, to be brought ; and, having 
this before him, the gentleman I have mentioned began to 
speak to the following purpose." Ramusio, after this intro- 
duction, gives us, as proceeding from the stranger, a great 
mass of geographical information, after which he introduces 
him discussing with Fracastoro the probability of a north- 
west passage to India. " At this point of his conversation," 
says he, " after the stranger had made a pause for a few mo- 
jnents, he turned to us and said, ' Do you not know, 
regarding this project of going to India by the north-west, 
what was formerly achieved by your fellow-citizen the Vene- 
tian, a most extraordinary man, and so deeply conversant in 



HIS ACCOUNT OF SEBASTIAN CABOT. 23 

every thing connected with navigation and the science of 
cosmography, that in these days he hath not his equal in 
Spain, insomuch that for his ability he is preferred above all 
other pilots that sail to the West Indies, who may not pass 
thither without his license, on which account he is denom- 
inated Piloto Mayor, or Grand Pilot ]' When to this ques- 
tion we replied that we knew him not, the stranger proceeded 
to tell us, that being some years ago in the city of Seville he 
was desirous to gain an acquaintance with the navigations 
of the Spaniards, when he learned that there was in the city 
a valiant man, a Venetian born, named Sebastian Cabot, who 
had the charge of those things, being an expert man in the 
science of navigation, and one who could make charts for 
the sea with his own hand. ' Upon this report of him,* 
continued he, ' I sought his acquaintance, and found him a 
pleasant and courteous person, who loaded me with kind- 
ness, and showed me many things ; among the rest a large 
map of the world, with the navigations of the Portuguese 
and the Spaniards minutely laid down upon it ; and in ex- 
hibiting this to me, he informed me that his father, many 
years ago, having left Venice and gone to settle as a mer- 
chant in England, had taken him to London when he was 
still a youth, yet not so backward but he had then ac- 
quired the knowledge of the Latin tongue, and some ac- 
quaintance with the sphere. It so happened, he said, that 
his father died at that time when the news arrived that Don 
Christopher Columbus had discovered the coast of the Indies, 
of which there was much talk at the court of Henry VII., 
who then reigned in England.' " The effect of this discov- 
ery upon Cabot's youthful ambition, which we have already 
alluded to, is next described by Ramusio from the report of 
the stranger, and he then proceeds in these remarkable 
words : — " ' Being aware,' said Cabot to me, ' that if I sailed 
with the wind bearing me in a north-westerly course, I 
should come to India by a shorter route, I suddenly imparted 
my ideas to the king, who was much pleased with them, 
and fitted out for me three caravels with all necessary stores 
and equipments This,' he added, ' was in the beginning 
of the summer of the year 1496, and I began to sail towards 
the north-west with the idea that the first land I should 
make would be Cathay, from which I intended afterward to 
direct my course to the Indies ; but after the lapse of several 



24 sfcBAariAN cabot. 

jays, having discovered it, I found that the coast ran 
towards the north to my great disappointment. From thence 
sailing along it, to ascertaifi if I could find any gulf to run 
into, I could discover none, and thus having proceeded as 
far as 56° under the Pole, and seeing that here the coast 
trended towards the east, I despaired of discovering any 
passage, and after this turned back to examine the same 
coast in its direction towards the equinoctial, — always with 
the same object of finding a passage to the Indies, and thus 
at last I reached the country at present named Florida, 
where, since my provisions began to fail me, I took the reso- 
lution of returning to England. On arriving in that coun- 
try I found great tumults, occasioned by the rising of the 
common people and the war in Scotland ; nor was there 
any more talk of a voyage to these parts. For this reason 
I departed into Spain to their most Catholic majesties, 
Ferdinand and Isabella, who, having learned what I had ac- 
complished, received me into their service, provided for me 
handsomely, and despatched me on a voyage of discovery to 
the coast of Brazil, where I found an exceeding deep and 
mighty river, called at present La Plata, into which I sailed 
and explored its course into the continent more than six- 
score leagues. * * * This,' continued the stranger gentle- 
man, addressing himself to us, ' is the substance of all that 
I learned from the Signor Sebastian Cabot.'"* 

Such is the passage from Ramusio ; and from it we have 
another proof that of this second voyage, which probably 
took place after the death of the original discoverer, Sebas- 
tian Cabot had the sole command ; that its object was to 
find a north-west passage to India, and that the highest 
latitude which he reached was 56°. I am quite aware 
some of the statements in this extract are erroneous, and 
that Gomara, an author of good authority, carries Sebastian 
as far as 58° north ;t but, considering the particular cir- 
cumstances under v/hich the information is conveyed, there 
is no reason to doubt that the general sketch of the voyage 
is correct ; and it establishes the important fact, that as 
early as 1498, the coast of North America, from the latitude 
of 56° or 58° north to the coast of Florida, had been dis- 
covered by the English. The domestic affairs of Henry, 

* Viaggi del Ramusio, torn. i. p, 413, 414 
t Memoir of Cabot, p. 87. 



CORTEREAL. 25 

however, and the involved political negotiations with France 
and the continent, undoubtedly prevented *he king from 
holding out to Sebastian that encouragement with which so 
great a discovery ought to have been rewarded ; and after 
an interval of fourteen years, of which we have no certain 
account, this great navigator left England and entered into 
the service of Spain. 

The Portuguese, a nation to whose genius and perse- 
verance the sister sciences of geography and navigation 
owe some of their highest triumphs, were at this period in 
the zenith of their fame, animated with an enthusiastic 
spirit of enterprise, and ready to consider every discovery 
not conducted by themselves as an encroachment upon their 
monopoly of maritime glory. Inspired with this jealousy, 
Gaspar de Cortereal, of whose expedition notice has already 
been taken in this Library,* determined to pursue the track 
of discovery opened by Cabot in the north-west, and in 
1500 sailed with two ships from Lisbon, animated by the 
desire of exploring this supposed new route to Lidia.t 
Cortereal touched at the Azores, where he completed his 
crews, and took in provisions. He then steered a course 
never, as far as he knew, traced by any former navigator, 
and came upon a country to which he gave the name of 
Terra Verde, but which is carefully to be distinguished 
from that called Greenland. This was in truth the coast of 
Labrador, denominated in an old map published at Rome, in 
1508, Terra Corterealis. It lay between the west and 
north-west ; and, after having explored it for upwards of 600 
miles without reaching any termination, Cortereal con- 
cluded that it must form part of the mainland, which was 
connected with another region discovered in the preceding 

* Discovery and Adventure in the Polar Seas, Family Library, No. 
XIV. ; and Lives and Voyages of Drake, Cavendisli, and Dampier, Ibid. 
No. XXX. 

t Cortereal had been educated in the household of the King of Por- 
tugal before he came to the throne, and when he still bore the title of 
Duke de Beja. — Damiano Goes, Chronica del Rey Dom. Manuel, c. 66, 
cap. 66, p. 187. His character, as given by this ancient and contemporary 
chronicler, is brief and forcible. " Gaspar de Cortereal, son of John 
Vaz Cortereal, was a man of an enterprising and determined character, 
ardently thirsting after glory; for which reason he proposed to set out 
on a voyage of discovery, seeking countries in northern latitudes, we 
(the Portuguese) having at this time discovered many in southern 
parts." 

C 



26 CORTEREAL. 

year in the north, — evidently alluding to the voyage of Se- 
bastian Cabot in 1498.* The most ciirious and authentic 
account of this remarkable expedition of the Portuguese 
Navigator is to be found in a letter, written by Pietro Pas- 
quiligi, the Venetian ambassador at the court of Portugal, 
to his brothers in Italy, only eleven days after the return 
of Cortereal from his first voyage. " On the 8th of Octo- 
ber," says he, " there arrived in this port one of the two 
caravels which were last year despatched by the King of 
Portugal for the discovery of lands lying in the north, un- 
der the command of Gaspar Cortereal. He relates that he 
has discovered a country situated between the west and 
north-west, distant from this about 2000 miles, and which 
before the present time was utterly unknown. They ran 
along the coast between 600 and 700 miles without arriving 
at its termination, on which account they concluded it to be 
the same continent that is connected with another land dis- 
covered last year in the north, which, hov^ever, the caravels 
could not reach, the sea being frozen, and a vast quantity 
of snow having fallen. They were confirmed in the same 
opinion by finding so many mighty rivers, which certainly 
were too numerous and too large to have proceeded from an 
island. They report that this land is thickly peopled, and 
that the houses are built of very long beams of timber, and 
covered with the furs of the skins of fishes. They have 
brought hither along with them seven of the inhabitants, 
including men, women, and children ; and in the other 
caravel, which is looked for every hour, they are bringing 
fifty more. These people, in colour, figure, stature, and 
expression, greatly resemble gipsies : they are clothed with 
the skins of different beasts, but chiefly of the otter, wear- 
ing the hair outside in summer, and next to the skin in 
winter. These skins, too, are not sewed together, nor 
shaped to the body in any fashion, but wrapped around their 
arms and shoulders exactly as taken from the animals ; 
while they conceal the parts which nature forbids us to ex- 
pose with strong cords made of the sinews or entrails of 
fishes. On this account their appearance is completely 
savage ; yet they are very sensible to shame, gentle in 
their manners, and better made in their arms, legs, and 

* Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 241. 



CORTEREAL. 27 

shoulders than can be expressed. Their faces are punc- 
tured in the same manner as the Indians ; some have six 
marks, some eight, some fewer : they use a language of 
their own, but it is understood by no one. Moreover, I be- 
lieve that every possible language has been addressed to 
them. They have no iron in their country, but manufac- 
ture knives out of certain kinds of stones, with which they 
point their arrows. They have also brought from this 
island a piece of a broken sword inlaid with gold, which we 
can pronounce undoubtedly to have been made in Italy ; 
and one of the children had in his ears two pieces (todini) 
of silver, which as .certainly appear to have been made in 
Venice, — a circumstance inducing me to believe that their 
country belongs to the continent, since it is evident that if 
it had been an island where any vessel had touched before 
this time, we should have heard of it. They have great 
plenty of salmon, herring, stockfish, and similar kinds of 
fish. They have also abundance of timber, and principally 
of the pine, fitted for the masts and yards of ships ; on 
which account his serene majesty anticipates the greatest 
advantage from this country, both in furnishing timber for 
his shipping, of which he at present stands in great need, 
and also from the men who inhabit it, who appear admira- 
bly fitted to endure labour, and will probably turn out the 
best slaves which have been discovered up to this time. 
This arrival appeared to me an event of which it was right 
to inform you ; and if on the arrival of the other caravel I 
receive any additional information, it shall be transmitted 
to you in like manner."* 

Nothing could be more cruel and impolitic than the con- 
duct of Cortereal in seizing and carrying into captivity 
these unfortunate natives ; and it is difficult to repress our 
indignation at the heartless and calculating spirit with 
which the Portuguese monarch entered into the adventure, 
contemplating the rich supplies of slaves that were to be 
imported from this new country.! It is an ingenious con- 

* Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 239, 240. 

t I observe that in the History of Discovery and Adventure in the 
Polar Seas, Mr. Murray has questioned the accuracy of the opinion 
stated by the biographer of Cabot, "that the objects of Cortereal's 
second voyage were timber and slaves." The letter, however, of Pas- 
quiligi seems to me decisive that, if not the sole, they were at least very 
principal objects in the second voyage 



28 CORTEREAL. 

jecture of the biographer of Cabot, to whose research we 
owe our acquaintance with this letter, that the name Terra 
de Laborador was given to the coast by the Portuguese 
slave-merchants in consequence of the admirable qualities 
of the natives as labourers, and in anticipation of the profits 
to be derived from a monopoly of this unchristian traffic. 

But distress and disaster pursued the speculation. On 
the 15th May, 1501, Cortereal departed on a second voy- 
age, with a determination to pursue his discovery, and, as 
we may plausibly conjecture, to return with a new cargo 
of slaves and timber ; but he was never again heard of. A 
similar dark and unhappy fate befell his brother, Michael 
de Cortereal, who sailed with two ships in search of his 
lost relative, but of whom no accounts ever again reached 
Portugal. The most probable conjecture seems to be that 
they both fell victims to the just indignation of the natives, 
whose wives, children, and fathers had been stolen away 
during their first visit to the coast. "The king," says 
Goes, " felt deeply the loss of these two brothers, so much 
the more as they had been educated by him ; and on this 
account, moved by royal and gracious tenderness, in the 
following year, 1503, he sent at his own expense two armed 
ships in search of them ; but it could never be discovered 
where or in what manner either the one or the other was 
lost, on which account this province of Terra Verde, where 
it was supposed the two brothers perished, was called the 
Land of the Cortereals."* The description of the inhabit- 
ants, as given by this contemporary chronicler, contains a 
few additional particulars to those mentioned by Pasquiligi. 
" The people of the country," says he, " are very barbarous 
and uncivilized, almost equally so with the natives of Santa 
Cruz, except that they are white, and so tanned by the 
cold that the white colour is lost as they grow older, and 
they become blackish. They are of the middle size, very 
lightly made, and great archers. Instead of javelins, they 
employ sticks burnt in the end, which they use as missiles 
to as good purpose as if they were pointed with fine steel. 
They clothe themselves in the skins of beasts, of which 
there are great plenty in the country. They live in caverns 
of rocks, and in houses shaped like nests (choupanas). 

* Damiano Goes, Chronica del Rey Dom. Manuel, part i. c. 66. 



tiNFOUNDED CLAIM OF THE PORTUGUESE. 29 

They have no laws, believe much in auguries, live in mat- 
rimony, and are very jealous of their wives, — in which 
things they much resemble the Laplanders, who also in- 
habit a northern latitude under 70° to 85°, subject to the 
kings of Norway and Sweden.'*"*" 

Upon these voyages of the Cortereals the Portuguese 
attempted to establish a claim to the discovery of Newfound- 
land and the adjacent coasts of North America, though 
there is ample historical evidence that both had been visited 
by the two Cabots three years prior to the departure of Cor- 
tereal from Lisbon. Maps appear to have been forged to 
support this unfair assumption ; and in a volume published 
by Madrignanon at Milan in 1508, which represents itself 
to be a translation of the Italian work entitled " Paesi 
Nuovamente Ritrovati," the original letter of Pasquiligi, 
describing the arrival of Gaspar Cortereal, is disgracefully 
garbled and corrupted, — for the purpose, as it would seem, 
of keeping the prior discoveries of the Cabots in the back- 
ground, and advancing a fabricated claim for the Portuguese.f 
It is unfortunate that this disingenuous process of poisoning 
the sources of historic truth has succeeded, and that many 
authors, not aware of its apocryphal character, which has 
been acutely exposed by the biographer of Cabot, have 
given a pernicious currency to the fable of Madrignanon. 

About fourteen years after his return from the voyage of 
1498, we have seen that Sebastian Cabot was induced to 
enter the service of Spain ; but, though highly esteemed for 
his eminent abilities, appointed one of the Council of the 
Indies by Ferdinand, and nominated to the command of an 
expedition to the north in search of a north-west passage, 
he appears to have been baffled and thwarted in his plans by 
the jealousy of the Spaniards, and was at last compelled to 
abandon them on the death of Ferdinand. He then returned 
to England ; and, indefatigable in the prosecution of that 
great object which formed the prominent pursuit of his life, 
induced Henry VIII. to fit out a small squadron for the dis- 
covery of the north-west passage to India. Unfortunately, 
however, for the success of the voyage, Sir Thomas Pert, 
at this time vice-admiral of England, was intrusted with the 



* Damiano Goes, Chronica del Rey Dom. Manuel, part i. c. 66, p. 87. 
t Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 251, 252. 
C2 



30 SEBASTIAN CABOT ENTERS HTJDSON's BAY. 

supreme command, whose want of courage and resolution 
was the cause of its ultimate failure. The object of Cabot 
was to proceed by Iceland towards the American coast, 
which he had already explored as far as 56°, according to 
Ramusio, or, if we follow Gomara, 58° north. This would 
lead him, to use the expression of Thorne,* by the back of 
Newfoundland, and from this point, pursuing his voyage far- 
ther to the northward, he expected to find a passage to the 
kingdom of Cathay. The ships accordingly set sail, and 
on the 11th of June they had reached the 67^° of northern 
latitude. They here found the sea open, and Cabot enter- 
tained a confident hope of sailing through a bay or " fret," 
which they had then entered, to the shores of the Eastern 
Cathay, when a mutiny of the mariners, and the faint- 
heartedness of Sir Thomas Pert, compelled him, much 
against his inclination, to desist from the further prosecution 
of the voyage, and return home.f From the high latitude 

* Letter of Robert Thome.— Hakluyt, edition of 1589, p. 250.— ''And 
if they will take their course, after they be past the Pole, towards the 
Occident, they shall goe in the back side of the Newfoundland, which 
of late was discovered by your grace's subjects, until they come to tho 
back side and south seas of the Indies Occidental : and so, continuing 
their voyage, they may return thorow the Straight of Magellan to this 
country, and so they compass also the world by that way ; and if they 
goe this third way, and after they be past the Pole, goe right toward 
the Pole Antarticke, and then decline towards the lands and islands 
situated between the tropicks and under the equinoctial, without doubt 
they shall find there the richest lands and islands of the world, of gold, 
precious stones, balmis, spices, and other thinpes that we here esteem 
most, which come out of strange countries, and may return the same 
way." See also Gomara, as quoted in the Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, 
p. 21. 

t It is evidently to this third voyage that the passage in Ramusio, vol. 
iil. p. 4. of the " Discorso sopra U terzo volume," applies. Memoir of 
Cabot, p. 117. It is valuable, as this author, though he appears by mis- 
take to have put the name of Henry VII. for that of Henry VIIT., quotes 
in it a letter which many years before he had received from Sebastian 
Cabot himself. He (Ramusio) in speaking of the discoveries subsequently 
made by Verazzano, and of the country of New-France, remarks, that of 
this land it is not certain as yet whether it is joined to the continent of 
Florida and New-Spain, or wh«ther it is separated into islands, and may 
thus admit of a passage to the kingdom of Cathay. " Come," he pro- 
ceeds, " come mi fii scritto gia molti anni sono, dal Signor Sebastian 
Gabotto nostro Vinitiano huomo di grande esperienza et raro nell'arte 
del navigare, e nella scienza di cosmografia : il quale avea na\^ato dis- 
opra di questa terra della Nuova-Francia a spese del Re Henrico VII. 
d'Inghilterra e me diciva, come essendoegli andato lungamenteallavolta 
de poiiente e quarta di Maestro dietro queste Isole poste lungo la delta terra 



VERAZZANO^S VOYAGE. 31 

reached by this enterprising seaman, as well as from the ex- 
pressions employed by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in speaking 
of the voyage, it appears certain that Cabot had entered the 
great bay afterward explored by Hudson, and since known 
by his name.* It is an extraordinary fact, therefore, but it 
rests upon evidence which it would be difficult to contro- 
vert, that ninety years before the first voyage of Hudson 
he had been anticipated in his principal discovery by an 
early navigator, to whose merits the world have done little 
justice. 

While the Portuguese, the Spaniards, and the English 
had early entered upon the career of discovery, the French, 
a people undoubtedly of the highest genius and enterprise, 
evinced an unaccountable inactivity upon this great subject, 
and appeared to view with indifference the brilliant suc- 
cesses of other nations. At length Francis I., a monarch 
who was deeply smit with the love of glory, caught the en- 
thusiasm for maritime discovery, and, eager to cope upon 
equal terms with his great rival Charles V., fitted out a 
squadron of four ships, the command of which he intrusted 
to Giovanni Verazzano, a Florentine navigator of great skill 
and celebrity. The destination of the armament, however, 
appears to have embraced the purposes of plunder as well 
as of discovery ; and in a cruise three of his vessels were 
so much damaged in a storm, that they were compelled, for 
the purpose of refitting, to run into a port in Brittany, from 
which, impatient of the delay, the admiral, in a single vessel 
named the Dauphin, set sail with a determination to prose- 
cute discoveries. He first steered his course for Madeira, 

fini a gradi sessanta sette e mezzo sntto il nostro polo a xi. di Guigno e tro- 
vandosi il mare aperto e senza impedimento alcuno, pensava fermamente 
per quella via di poter passare alia volta del Cataio Orientale, e I'avrebbe 
fatto, se la malignita del padrone e de marineri sollevati non I'havessero 
fatto tornare a dietro." This discourse is dated 20th June, 1553. 

* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 16. It must be recollected that Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert had the advantage of having examined the charts of Sebastian 
Cabot, which, he tells us, were then to be seen in the queen's privy- 
gallery at Whitehall. It has also been acutely remarked by a late writer 
(Memoir of Cabot, p. 29), that Ortelius, who died nine years before Hud- 
son undertook his first voyage, in the map of America, published in 
his great geographical work, the "Theatrnm Orbis Terrarum," has laid 
down the form of Hudson's Bay with singular precision. Now we know 
by the list of authorities cited by Ortelius, that he was in possession of 
a map of the world by Sebastian Cabot. The source, therefore, from 
which he derived his information is evident. 



32 VERAZZANO. 

and thence sailed in a westerly direction for twenty-five 
days, making in that time 500 leagues. A storm now 
attacked him, in which his little vessel had nearly perished, 
but he at last weathered the gale, and proceeding onwards 
for 400 leagues, arrived upon a coast that, according to his 
own account, had never before been visited.* It is probable 
that this shore belonged either to North or South Carolina ;t 
and the appearance of many large fires on the beach con- 
vinced him that the country was inhabited. Verazzano, 
however, in vain sought for a port ; and after exploring the 
coast both to the south and north without success, he was 
compelled to anchor in the open sea, after which he sent his 
boat on shore to open an intercourse with the natives. This 
he effected not without some difficulty; for as soon as the 
French landed the savages fled in great trepidation ; yet 
they soon after stole back, exhibiting signs of much wonder 
and curiosity. At last being convinced that they had 
nothing to fear, they completely recovered their confidence, 
and not only brought provisions to the French, but assisted 
them in drawing their boat on shore, and carefiilly and mi- 
nutely scrutinized every thing belonging to the vessels and 
the crew. They admired the white skin of the strangers, 
handled their dress, and exhibited the utmost astonishment 
and delight. They themselves were a handsome race of 
people, their eyes dark and large, their expression bold, open, 
and cheerful ; their chests were broad, and they combined 
middle stature and symmetry of limbs with great nimbleness 
and swiftness of foot. Their colour was tawny, not unlike 
the Saracens, and they wore their hair, which was black 
and thick, tied behind their head in a little tail, and some- 
times ornamented with a garland of birds' feathers. Their 
bodies were not disfigured or tattooed in any way, and they 
walked about perfectly naked, except that they wore short 
aprons of furs fastened round their middle by a girdle of 
woven grass. In the immediate vicinity of the coast the 
country was sandy, rising into gentle undulations ; as they 
proceeded it became more elevated, and was covered by 
noble woods, consisting, not of the usual forest-trees, but 



* Ramusio, Viaggi, vol. iii. p. 420. " Dovi scopsimmo una terra nuova, 
rton piu da grantichi ne da nioderni vista." 
I " fcsta Questa terra in gradi 249." — Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 420. 



VERAZZANO. 33 

of the palm, laurel, cypress, and others then unknown in 
Europe, which grew lo a great height, and diffused a de- 
licious perfume that was discerned far out at sea. " The 
land also," says Verazzano in his letter to Francis I., " is 
full of many animals, as stags, deer, and hares, which were 
seen sporting in the forests, and frequenting the banks of 
pleasant lakes and rivers ; nor were there wanting great 
plenty and variety of birds of game, fitted to afford delight- 
ful recreation for the sportsman. The sky was clear, the 
air wholesome and temperate, the prevalent wind blowing 
from the west, and the sea calm and placid. In short, a 
country more full of amenity could not well be imagined."*" 
An excellent author and navigator thinks it probable that 
the spot where Verazzano first landed was on the coast of 
Georgia, near the present town of Savannah. t 

From this he proceeded along the shore, which turned to 
the eastward and appeared thickly inhabited, but so low and 
open that landing in such a surf was impossible. In this 
perplexity a young sailor undertook to swim to land and ac- 
cost the natives ; but when he saw the crowds which 
thronged the beach he repented of his purpose, and although 
within a few yards of the landing-place, his courage failed, 
and he attempted to turn back. At this moment the water 
only reached his waist ; but, overcome with terror and ex- 
haustion, he had scarcely strength to cast his presents and 
trinkets upon the beach, when a high wave cast him stupi- 
fied and senseless upon the shore. The savages ran imme- 
diately to his assistance, and carried him to a little distance 
from the sea, where it was some time before he recovered 
his recollection ; and great was his terror when he found 
himself entirely in their power. Stretching his hands to- 
wards the ship, he uttered a piercing shriek, to which his 
friends of the New World replied by raising a loud yell, in- 
tended, as he afterward found, to encourage him But, if 
this was sufficiently alarming, their further proceedings 
proved still more formidable. They carried him to the foot 
of a hill, turned his face towards the sun, kindled a large 
fire, and stripped him naked. No doubt was now left in the 
mind of the unhappy man that they were about to offer him 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 420. 

t Forster'3 Discoveries in the North, p. 433. 



34 VERAZZANO. 

as a sacrifice to tne sun ; and his companions on board, who 
watched the progress of the adventure, unable, from the vio- 
lence of the sea, to lend him assistance, were of the same 
opinion. They thought, to use Verazzano's own words, 
that the natives were going to roast and eat him.* But 
their fears were soon turned into gratitude and astonish- 
ment ; for they only dried his clothes, warmed him, and 
showed him every mark of kindness, caressing and patting 
his white skin ; and on observing that he still trembled and 
looked suspicious, they assisted him to dress, conducted him 
to the beach, tenderly embraced him, and pointing to the 
vessel, removed to a Utile distance to show that he was at 
liberty to return to his friends. This he did by swimming 
to the ship's bc'^*, which had been put out to receive him, 
followed by the kind gestures of the savages, who gazed 
after him till they saw him safe among his friends. The 
spot where Verazzano found this amiable people is conjec- 
tured by Forster to have been somewhere between New- 
Jersey and Staten Island. 

From this the Florentine sailed onward, observing the coast 
trending to the northward, and after a run of fifty leagues 
came to anchor off a delightful country covered with the finest 
forests. The trees, although equally luxuriant, did not emit 
the same perfume as those before seen ; but the region was 
rich, covered with grass, and thickly peopled, although the 
natives appeared more timid than the last, and avoided all 
intercourse. The sailors, however, discovered and seized a 
family who had concealed themselves in the underwood, 
consisting of an old woman, a young girl of a tall and hand- 
some figure, and six children. The two younger of the 
little ones were squatted on the shoulders of the old woman, 
and another child hung behind her back, while the girl was 
similarly loaded. On being approached both the females 
shrieked loudly ; but, having succeeded in pacifying them, 
the sailors understood by their signs that all the men had 
escaped to the woods on the appearance of the ships. Much 
persuasion was now used to induce them to go on board ; 
but although the elderly lady showed symptoms of acquies- 
cence, and eagerly ate the food which was offered her, no 
entreaties could soften the obstinacy and rage of the 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 421. 



VERAZZANO. 35 

younger. She uttered piercing cries, cast the meat indig- 
nantly on the ground, and rendered the task of dragging 
her through the thick woods so tedious and distressing, that 
they were obhged to desist and leave her, only carrying with 
them a little boy, who could make no resistance.* The 
people of this country possessed fairer complexions than 
those whom they had just left, and were clad with large 
leaves sewed together with threads of wild hemp. Their 
common food was pulse, but they subsisted also by fishing, and 
were very expert in catching birds with gins. Their bows 
were made of hard wood, their arrows of canes headed with 
fish-bone, and their boats constructed of one large tree hol- 
lowed by fire, for they appeared to have no instruments of 
iron or other metal. Wild vines crept up the trunks of the 
trees, hanging in rich festoons from the branches, and the 
banks and meadows were covered with roses, lilies, violets, 
and many sorts of herbs different from those of Europe, 
yielding a fresh and delightful fragrance. 

Verazzano now proceeded one hundred leagues farther to a 
sheltered and beautiful bay surrounded by gently rising hills, 
and discovered a large river, which from its depth seemed navi- 
gable to a considerable distance. Fearful, however, of any 
accident, they ascended it in boats ; and the voyage con- 
ducted them through a country so full of sweetness and 
attraction that they left it with much regret. t Prosecuting 
their discoveries fifty leagues eastward, they reached another 
island of a triangular shape, covered with rich wood, and 
rising into gentle hills, which reminded them of Rhodes 
both in its form and general aspect. A contrary wind, how- 
ever, rendered it impossible to land, and pursuing their 
course about fifteen leagues farther along the coast, they 
found a port where there was an excellent anchorage. Here 
they were soon visited by the natives, who came in a squad- 
ron of twenty boats, and at first cautiously kept at the dis- 
tance of fifty paces. Observing, however, the friendly ges- 
tures of the strangers, they ventured nearer, and when the 
French threw them bells, mirrors, and other trinkets, they 
raised a loud and simultaneous shout expressive of joy and 
security, no longer hesitating to row their boats to the ship's 
side and come aboard. They are described by Verazzano 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 421 t fbid. 



S6 VERAZZANO. 

in his account of the voyage sent to Francis I., as the finest 
and handsomest race, and the most civilized in their man- 
ners, of any he had yet met in America. Their colour was 
fairer than that of the more southern people, and in the 
symmetry of their forms, and the simplicity and graceful- 
ness of their attitudes, they almost vied with the antique. 
They soon became exceedingly friendly and intimate, and 
conducted the French into the interior of the country, which 
they found variegated with wood, and more delightful than 
can be easily described. Adapted for every sort of cultiva- 
tion, whether of corn, vines, or olives, it was. interspersed 
with plains of twenty-five or thirty leagues in length, open 
and unencumbered with trees, and of such fertility, that 
whatever fruit might be sown was certain to produce a 
rich and abundant return. They afterward entered the 
woods, which were of great size, and so thick that a large 
army might have been concealed in them. The trees con- 
sisted of oaks and cypresses, besides other species unknown 
to Europe. They foimd also apples, parsley, plums, and 
filberts, and many other kinds of fruit different from those 
of Italy. They saw likewise many animals, such as harts, 
roes, wolves, and stags, which the natives caught with 
snares, and destroyed with bows and arrows, their principal 
weapons of offence. The arrows were made with great 
neatness, and at the point instead of iron they inserted flints, 
jaspers, hard marble, and other kinds of cut stones. These 
they also made use of in felling trees, and in excavating 
their boats, which with great skill were made of a single 
trunk, yet large enough to hold ten or twelve men commo- 
diously. Their oars were short and broad at the extremity, 
which they plied in the sea without any accident happening, 
trusting solely to their strength of arm and skilful manage- 
ment, and seeming able to go at almost any rate they 
pleased. Their houses were constructed in a circular shape, 
ten or twelve paces in circuit, built of boards, and separated 
from each other without any attention paid to architectural 
arrangement, covered with tiles made of clay, of excellent 
workmanship, and effectually protected from the wind and 
rain.* On one subject alone they showed suspicion, being 
extremely jealous of the least intercourse between tho 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 422. 



VERAZZANO. 37 

French and their women. These they would on no pei> 
suasion allow to enter the ship ; and on one occasion, while 
the king came on board, and spent some hours in curiously 
examining- every part of the vessel, his royal consort was 
left with her female attendants in a boat at some distance, 
strictly watched and guarded.* 

The J'rench now bade adieu to this kind people, and pur- 
sued their discoveries for one hundred and fifty leagues, ex- 
ploring a coast which extended first towards the east and 
afterward to the north. The country still presented an 
agreeable and inviting aspect, although the climate became 
colder, and the regions along which they passed more hilly. 
A progress of other fifty leagues brought them to a more 
mountainous district than any yet seen, covered with dark 
and dense forests, and possessed by a people whose habits 
and temper seemed to partake of the severer nature of their 
country. On attempting to open an intercourse, Verazzano 
found them as fierce and sullen as those with whom he had 
lately dealt were agreeable and generous. Twenty-five of 
the crew who landed were received with a shower of 
arrows ; and although the exhibition of articles of barter 
overcame their scruples, and tempted them to agree to an 
interchange of commodities, the manner in which this was 
effected evinced a striking mixture of avidity and suspicion. 
They came down to the beach, choosing the spot where the 
surf was breaking most violently, and insisted that the 
French boat should remain on the other side ; a rope was 
then passed from it to the shore, and the different articles 
were swung along it. Strings of beads, toys, or mirrors 
they utterly despised ; but eagerly received knives, fishing- 
hooks, swords, saws, or any thing in the shape of cutting- 
metal to be used in war or in the chase, though such was 
their savage temper, that during the process of exchange 
they expressed their aversion to the strangers by uncouth 
gestures of contempt and derision. It seems probable that 
the country now for the first time visited by Europeans 
was the present state of Maine ; as we are told by Ve- 
razzano, that a further run of fifty leagues along the 



* This country, accordina: to Verazzano, was situated in 41§o of lati- 
tude (Ramusio, vol. iil. p. 422), Avliich, if correct, would point it out as 
Cihe present flourishing state of Massachusetts. 

D 



38 VERAZZANO. 

coast brought him to a cluster of thirty islands separated by 
narrow channels, — a description which points out, in precise 
terms, the Bay of Penobscot.* 

From this point he pursued his indefatigable course for one 
hundred and fifty leagues farther, till he reached the land 
already discovered, as he says, by the Britons in the lati- 
tude of 50^, which is evidently Newfoundland. Here his 
provisions began to fail, and thinking it prudent to sail 
for France, he reached home in safety in the month of 
July, 1524. 

Verazzano had thus completed the survey of a line of 
coast extending for seven hundred leagues, and embracing 
the whole of the United States, along with a large portion 
of British America. It was undoubtedly an enterprise of 
great magnitude and splendour, and deserves to be carefully 
recorded, not only as comprehending one of the widest 
ranges of early discovery, but as making us for the first time 
acquainted with that noble country whose history is so im- 
portant, and whose destinies, even after a progress un- 
rivalled in rapidity, appear at this moment only in their in- 
fancy. The Florentine gave to the whole region which he 
had discovered the name of New-France ; he then laid be- 
fore the king a plan for completing his survey of the coast, 
penetrating into the interior, and establishing a colony ; and 
he appears to have met with encouragement irom Francis I., 
who embra^^ed his proposals for colonization. From this 
moment, however, his history is involved in obscurity. 
Hakluyt affirms that he performed three voyages to North. 
America, and gave a map of the coast to Henry VHI. The 
biographer of Cabot asserts, that he was the " Piedmontes«^ 
pilot'' who was slain on the coast of America in ]527,t no« 
aware that Verazzano was a Florentine and alive in 1537. 
and Ramusio could not ascertain the particulars of his last 
expedition, or even discover in what year it took place. All 
that is certainly known is, that it proved fatal to this great 
navigator. Having landed incautiously upon the American 
coast, he and his party were surrounded and cut to pieces 

* Murray's North America, vol. i. p. 79. The veracity or the Floren- 
tine navigator, in his description of the ferocious habits of the natives, 
is strikingly corroborated by the determined and rancorous hostility 
evinced afterward by the Indians of this district in opposing evetj 
attempt at stitlement. 

t Memoir of Cabot, p. 278. 



cartier; 39 

by the savages ; after which they barbarously devoured them 
in the sight of their companions.* 

The death of Verazzano appears to have thrown a damp 
over the further prosecution of discovery by the court of 
France ; but at length, after an interval often years, Jacques 
Cartier, an enterprising and able mariner of St. Malo, was 
chosen by the Sieur de Mel'eraye, vice-admiral of France, 
to conduct a voyage to Newfoundland, which, since its dis- 
covery by Cabot, had been seldom visited, and was imper-i 
fectly known. Cartier departed from St. Malo on the 20th 
of April, 1534, with two ships, each of 60 tons burden, and 
having on board a well-appointed crew of sixty-one men.f 
The voyage appears to have been limited to a survey of the 
northern coast of Newfoundland, of which he gives a 
minute description, dwelling particularly on the zoological 
features of the country. He found the land in most parts 
extremely wild and barren, *' insomuch that he did not 
see a cartload of good earth ; and the inhabitants were of 
stout make, but wild and unruly." They wore their hair 
tied on the top like a bunch of hay, fixed with a wooden 
bodkin, and ornamented with birds' feathers. Like their 
companions whom Cabot had described, they were clothed 

* Such is the account of Ramusio in his Discourse upon New-France, 
Tol. iii. p. 417. But Cardenas, in a work entitled " Ensajo Cronologico 
para la Historia de la Fioridas" (p. 8), has committed an error similar to 
that of the writer of Cabot's life. He believes that Verazzano was the 
same as Juan the Florentine, a pirate in the service of France, who was 
talien by tlie Spaniards in 1524, and hanged. The evidence which over- 
turns the theories of both these authors is to be found in a letter of 
Annihal Caro, quoted byTiraboschi, Storiadella LetteraiuraItal.,vol., vii. 
part i. p. '^61, 262, from which it appears that Verazzano was alive iii 
1537. Lettere Familiari del. Comm. Annibal Caro, vol. i. p. 11. In his 
great work, Tirahoschi has collected all that is known regarding the life 
of this eminent discoverer; but this all is little or nothing. He was 
bom about the year 1485 ; his father was Pierandrea Verazzano, a noble 
Florentine, his mother Fiametta Capelli. Of his youth, and for what 
reasons he entered into the service of Francis I., nothing is known. The 
only published work of Verazzano is the narrative in Ramusio, addressed 
to Francis I., written with much simplicity and elegance. But in the 
Strozzi Library at Florence is preserved a manuscript, in which he is said 
to give, with great minuteness, a description of all the countries which 
he had visited duriJig his voyage, and from which, says Tirahoschi, we 
derive the intelligence that he had formed the design of attempting a 
passage through these seas to the East Indies. It is much to be desired 
that some Italian scholar would favour the world with the publicatioa 
of this MS. of Verazzano. 

t £amusio, vol. iii. p. 435. 



40 CARTIER. 

in beasts' skins, and ornamented their bodies by painting 
them with roan-colours. They paddled about in boats made 
of the bark of birch-trees, in which they carried on a con- 
stant trade of fishing, and caught great numbers of seals. 
After having almost circumnavigated Newfoundland, Cartier 
stood in towards the continent, and anchored in a bay which, 
from the extreme heat, was denominated Baye du Chaleur. 
The description of the inhabitants of this spot is striking 
and interesting. " Taking our way," says he, " along the 
coast, we came in sight of the savages, who stood on the 
borders 6f a lake in the low grounds, where they had lighted 
their fires, which raised a great smoke. We went towards 
them, and found that an arm of the sea ran into the lake, 
into which we pushed with our boats. Upon this the 
savages approached in one of their little barks, bringing 
along with them pieces of roasted seals, which they placed 
upon wooden boards, and afterward retired, making signs 
that tliis was intended as a present for us. We immediately 
put two men ashore, with hatchets, knives, garlands for the 
head, and such-like wares. On seeing these articles they 
appeared much delighted, and crowded to the bank where 
we were, paddling their barks, and bringing skins and 
other articles, which they meant to exchange for our mer- 
chandise. Their number, including men, women, and 
children, was upwards of three hundred. Some of the 
women, who would not venture nearer, stood up to the 
knees in water, singing and dancing. Others, who had 
passed over, came to us with great familiarity, rubbing 
our arms with their hands, which they afterward lifted up 
to heaven, singing all the while and making signs of joy ; 
such at last was their friendliness and security, that they 
bartered away every thing they had, and stood beside us 
quite naked ; for they scrupled not to give us all that was 
on them, and indeed their whole wardrobe was not much to 
speak of. It was evident that this people might be without 
difficulty converted to our faith. They migrate from place 
to place, and subsist themselves by fishing. Their country 
is warmer than Spain, and as beautiful as can be imagined, — 
level, and covered even in the smallest spots with trees, and 
this although the soil is sandy. It is full also of wild torn, 
which hath an ear similar to rye. We saw many beautiful 
meadows full of rich grass, and lakes where there were 



CARTIERS SECOND VOYAGE. 41 

plenty of salmon. The savages called a hatchet cochi, 
and a knife bacon."* All the navigators who had hitherto 
visited Newfoundland, on reaching its northernmost point, 
appear to have sailed across the Straits of Belleisle to Cape 
Charles, upon the coast of Labrador ; but the course of 
Cartier led him through the straits into the great Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, now for the first time visited by any European. 
His predecessor, Verazzano, after reaching the shore of the 
Bay of Fundy, had probably sailed along the coast of Nova 
Scotia until he reached Cape Breton. Cartier, on the con- 
trary, saw before him a wide and extensive field of discovery 
to the west, which he pursued for some time, directing his 
course along the coast of the Bay of St. Lawrence ; but, as 
the season was far advanced, and the weather became pre- 
carious, he determined to reserve a more complete exami- 
nation of this unknown country for a second voyage, and 
returned safely to France, coming to anchor in the port of 
St. Male upon the 5th of September, 1534.t 

Having been received with favour and distinction. Car- 
tier, after a short interval, embarked upon a second voy- 
age. His squadron consisted of three ships, — the Great 
.Hermina, of which Cartier himself was master, being a 
vessel of about 120 tons ; the Little Hermina of 60 tons, 
and the Hermirillon of 40 tons burden. The crews sol- 
emnly prepared themselves for their voyage by confession 
and the reception of the sacrament ; after which they en- 
tered in a body into the choir of the cathedral, and stood 
before the bishop, who was clothed in his canonicals, and 
devoutly gave them his benediction. Having fulfilled these 
rites, the fleet weighed anchor on the 15th of May, 1535, 
and the admiral steered direct for Newfoundland. His 
ships, however, were soon after separated in a storm, and 
did not again join company till the 26th of June ; after 
which they proceeded to explore the large gulf which he 
had already entered. " It was," to use the words of the 
navigator himself, '* a very fair gulf, full of islands, pass- 
ages, and entrances to what winds soever you pleased to 
bend, having a great island like a cape of land stretching 
somewhat farther forth than the others." This island is evi- 
dently that named by the English Anticosti, being merely a 

* Rarauaio. vol. Ui. p. 438. t Ibid. p. 440. 

D2 



42 cartier's second voyage. 

corruption of Natiscotec, the appellation at this day given 
it by the natives. To the channel between it and the oppo- 
site coast of Labrador Cartier gave the name of St. Law- 
rence, which has since been extended to the whole gulf. 

On reaching the eastern point of the island of Anticosti, 
the French, who had along with them two of the natives of 
the country, whom they had induced in their former voyage 
to accompany them to France, requested their advice as to 
their farther progress. The savages stated, that the gulf in 
which they now lay gradually contracted its dimensions till 
it terminated in the mouth of a mighty river named Hoche- 
laga, flowing from a vast distance in the interior of a great 
continent. That two days' sail above Anticosti would 
bring them to the kingdom of Saguenay, beyond which, 
along the bank of the same river, was a populous territory, 
situated at its highest known point, where the stream was 
only navigable by small boats. Having received this infor- 
mation, Cartier sailed onwards, exploring both sides of the 
river, and opening a communication with the inhabitants 
by means of the natives whom he carried along with him. 
The good effects of this arrangement were soon seen ; for 
at first they fled in great alarm upon the approach of any 
of the ships' crews ; but on hearing the interpreters cry 
out that they were Taignoagny and Domagaia, — names 
which seemed to inspire immediate ideas of friendliness and 
confidence, — they suddenly turned back ; after which they 
began to dance and rejoice, running away with great speed, 
and soon returning with eels, fishes, grain, and musk- 
melons, which they cast into the boats, with gestures ex- 
pressive of mv;ch kindness and courtesy.* This soon led 
to a more intimate and interesting intercourse ; and on the 
following day the lord of the country, who was named 
Donnaconna, made a formal visit to the admiral's ship, ac- 
companied by twelve boats, in which were a great multitude 
of his subjects. On approaching the vessel he ordered ten 
of these boats to ship their paddles and remain stationary, 
while he himself, with the other two boats, and attended by 
a suite of sixteen of his subjects, advanced over-against 
the smallest of the French ships, and standing up, com- 
Euenced a long oration, throwing his body into a variety of 

♦ Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 441, 



cartier's second voyage. 43 

strange and uncouth postures, which were afterward dis- 
covered to be signs indicating gladness and security. Don- 
naconna now came aboard the admiral's ship, and an en- 
thusiastic interview took place between him and the two 
savages who had been in France.* They recounted with 
much gesticulation the extraordinary things which they had 
seen in that country, dweDing on the kind entertainment 
they had experienced, and after many expressive looks of 
wonder and gratitude, the king entreated the admiral to 
stretch out his arm, which he kissed with devotion, laying 
it fondly upon his neck, and showing, by gestures which 
could not be mistaken, that he wished to make much of 
him. Cartier, anxious to evince an equal confidence, en- 
tered Donnaconna's boat, carrying with him a collation of 
bread and wine, with which the monarch was much pleased, 
and the French, returning to their ships, ascended the river 
ten leagues, till they arrived at a village where this friendly 
potentate usually resided, and which was named Stadacona. 
" It was," according to the original account of Cartier, " as 
goodly a plot of ground as possibly might be seen, very 
fruitful, and covered with noble trees similar to those of 
France, such as oaks, elms, ashes, walnut-trees, maple- 
trees, citrons, vines, and white thorns which brought forth 
fruit like damsons ; and beneath these woods grew as good 
hemp as any in France, without its being either planted or 
cultivated by man's labour."t 

From this time the intercourse between the French and 
Donnaconna continued with every expression of friendli- 
ness ; but on hearing that the admiral had determined to 
go to Hochelaga, a sudden jealousy appeared to seize him, 
lest he and his people should be deprived of the advantages 
of an uninterrupted communication with the white strangers, 
and every possible device was put in execution to deter 
them from their purpose. One of these stratagems was so 
ludicrous that we may be permitted to give Cartier's ac- 
count of it in an abridgment of the quaint translation of 
Hakluyt : " The next day, being the 18th of September, 
these men still endeavoured to seek all means possible to 
hinder us from going to Hochelaga, and for this purpose 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 443. Secouda Relatione di Jacques Cartier 
t Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 216. 



44 CARTIER'S SECOND VOYAGE. 

devised a pretty guile. They went and dressed three men 
like devils, being wrapped in dogs' skins, white and black, 
with their faces besmeared as black as a coal, and horns 
upon their heads more than a yard long." These figures 
they caused to be secretly put into one of the boats, which 
they concealed within a winding of the wooded bay, waiting 
patiently for the tide. When the proper moment had ar- 
rived, a multitude of the boats, crowded with natives and 
conducted by Taignaogny, suddenly emerged from the 
creek ; on a signal given, the boat in which were the coun- 
terfeit devils came rushing out of its concealment, and the 
middlemost devil, standing up, made a long oration, addressed 
to the French ships, of which of course every syllable was 
unintelligible. " Then," to resume the words of Hakluyt, 
" did King Donnaconna with all his people pursue them, 
and lay hold on the boat and devils, who, so soon as the 
men were come to them, fell prostrate, as if they had been 
dead, upon which they were taken up and carried into the 
wood, being but a stonecast off, at which time every one of 
the savages withdrew himself into the wood, and when 
there began to make a long discourse, so loud that it was 
easy for the French to hear them even in their ships. 
When this oration or debate, which lasted for half an hour, 
was ended, Cartier and his crew espied Taignaogny and 
Domagaia coming towards them, holding their hands joined 
together, carrying their hats under their upper garment, 
showing a great admiration, and looking up to heaven. 
Upon this the captain, hearing them, and seeing their ges- 
tures and ceremonies, asked them what they ailed, and 
what was happened or chanced anew 1 to which they an- 
swered that there were very ill tidings befallen, saying in 
their broken French, ' Nenni est il bon,' that is to say, it 
was not good. Our captain asked them again what it was, 
and then they answered that their god Cudraigny had 
spoken in Hochelaga, and that he had sent those three 
devils to show unto them that there was so much ice and 
snow in that country that whosoever went there should 
die ; which words when the French heard they laughed 
and mocked them, saying that their god Cudraigny was but 
a fool and a noddie, for he knew not what he said or did. 
Thsy bade them also csiiy their compliments to his mes- 



CARTIER*S SECOND VOYAGE. 45 

scngefs, and inform them that the God whom they served 
would defend them from all cold if they would only believe 
in him."* 

Having thus failed in the object intended to be gained by 
this extraordinary masquerade, the savages offered no 
further opposition, and the French proceeded in their pin- 
nace and two boats up the river St. Lawrence towards 
Hochelaga. They found the country on both sides ex- 
tremely rich and beautifully varied, covered with fine wood, 
and abounding in vines, though the grapes, from want of 
cultivation, were neither so large nor so sweet as those of 
France. The prevalent trees were the same as in Europe, 
— oaks, elms, walnut, cedar, fir, ash, box, and willow ; and 
the natives on each side of the river, who appeared to ex- 
ercise principally the trade of fishermen, entered into an 
intercourse with the strangers as readily and kindly as if 
they had been their own countrymen. One of the lords 
of the country did not scruple after a short acquaintance 
to make a present to Cartier of two of his children ; one 
of whom, a little girl of seven or eight years old, he carried 
away with him, while he returned the other, a boy, who 
was considered too young to travel. They saw great 
variety of birds, almost all of which were the same as those 
flf Europe. Cranes, swans, geese, ducks, pheasants, par- 
tridges, thrushes, blackbirds, turtles, finches, redbreasts, 
nightingales, and sparrows of divers kinds were observed, 
besides many other birds. 

By this time the river had become narrow, and in some 
places dangerous in its navigation, owing to the rapids ; and 
the French, who had still three days' sailing before them, 
left their pinnace and took to their boats, in which, after a 
prosperous passage, they reached the city of Hochelaga. It 
consisted of about fifty houses, built in the midst of large 
and fair corn-fields near a great mountain, which the French 
called Mont Royale, corrupted by time into Montreal, which 
name the place still retains ; while the original American 
designation of Hochelaga has been long since forgotten. 
The city, according to Cartier's description, was round, 
compassed about with timber, and with three courses of ram- 
parts, one within another, framed like a sharp spire, but laid 

* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 218; and Ramusio, vol. iii.p. 444. 



46 CARTIER S SECOND VOYAGE. 

across above. The enclosure which surrounded the town 
was in height about two roods, having but one gate, which 
was shut with piles, stakes, and bars. Over it, and also in 
various parts of the wall, were places to run along, and lad- 
ders to get up, with magazines or heaps of stones for its de- 
fence. The houses were entirely of wood, with roofs of 
bark very artificially joined together. Each house had a 
court in the midst of it, and consisted of many rooms, while 
the family lighted their fire in the centre of the court, and 
during the day all lived in common ; at night the husbands, 
wives, and children retired to their several chambers. At 
the top of the house were garners where they kept their 
corn, which was something like the millet of Brazil, and 
called by them carracony. They had also stores of pease 
and beans, with musk-melons and great cucumbers. Many 
large butts were observed in their houses, in which they 
preserved their dried fish ; but this, as well as all their other 
victuals, they dressed and ate without salt. They slept 
upon beds of bark spread on the ground, with coverings of 
skins similar to those of which their clothes were made.* 

The reception of the French by the inhabitants of Hoche- 
laga was in a high degree friendly ; and indeed such was 
the extent of their credulity and admiration, that they con- 
sidered the strangers as possessed of miraculous power, and 
their commander a divine person. This was shown by their 
bringing their king, Agonhanna, an infirm paralytic about 
fifty years of age, to be touched, and, as they trusted, cured 
by the admiral, earnestly importuning him by expressive 
gestures to rub his arms and legs ; after which the savage 
monarch took the wreath or crown which he wore upon his 
head and gave it to Cartier. Soon after this they brought 
with them all the diseased and aged folks whom they could 
collect, and besought him to heal them ; on which occasion 
his conduct appears to have been that of a man of sincere 
piety. He neither arrogated to himself miraculous powers, 
nor did he altogether refuse their earnest request ; but read, 
from the Gospel of St. John, the passion of our Saviour, and 
praying that the Lord would be pleased to open the hearts 
of these forlorn pagans, and teach them to know the truth, 
he laid his hands upon them, and making the sign of the 

* Kamusio, vol. iii. p. 445 ; and Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 220, 221. 



cartier's second voyage/ 47 

cross, left the issue of their being healed or not in the hand 
of their Creator.* 

On inquiring into their religious tenets, he found that 
they were buried in the deepest ignorance and superstition, 
unacquainted with the existence of the only true God, and 
substituting in his place a capricious and horrid being of 
their own imaginations, named Cudraigny. They affirmed 
that he often spoke to them, and told them what kind of 
weather they were to have ; but, if angry, would punish 
them by throwing dust in their eyes. They had a strange 
and confused idea regarding the immortality of the soul, be- 
lieving that after death they went to the stars, and descended 
like these bright sparks by degrees to the horizon, where 
they wandered about in delicious green fields, which were 
full of the most precious trees, and profusely sown with 
fruits and flowers. Cartier explained as well as he could 
the folly of such a creed, persuaded them that Cudraigny 
was no god but a devil, and at his departure promised to re- 
turn again, and bring some good and holy men, who would 
instruct them in the knowledge of the true and only God, 
and baptize them in the name of his Son, with which they 
declared themselves well pleased. t " There groweth here," 
says Cartier, " a certain kind of herb, of which during the 
summer they collect a great quantity for winter consump- 
tion, esteeming it much, and only permitting men to use it 
in the following manner : It is first dried in the sun ; after 
which they wear it about their necks, wrapped in a little 
skin made in the shape of a bag, along with a hollow piece 
of stone or of wood formed like a pipe ; after this they 
bruise it into a powder, which is put into one of the ends of 
the said cornet or pipe, and laying a coal of fire upon it at 
the other end, they suck so long that they fill their bodies 
full of smoke till it comes out of their mouth and nostrils, 
even as out of the tunnel of a chimney. They say that this 
keeps them warm and in health, and never go without some 
of it about them." It is not impossible that the reader, 
perplexed by this laboriously minute description, may have 
failed to recognise in it the first acquaintance made by tha 
French with the salubrious and far-famed plant of tobacco.^ 

Not long after this the ships' crews were seized with a 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 448. t Jl>id- P- 449. * "*i4 



48 i!ARTIER*S SECOND VOYAGE. 

loathsome and dreadful disease, caught, as they supposed, 
from the natives, which carried ofl' twenty-five men, re- 
ducing the survivors to a state of pitiable weakness and 
suffering. The malady was then new to Europeans ; but 
the symptoms detailed by Cartier, — swollen legs, extreme 
debility, putrified gums, and discoloration of the skin and 
blood, — leave no doubt that this " strange, unknown," and 
cruel pestilence was the scurvy, since so fatally familiar to 
the European mariner. Providentially, however, they dis- 
covered from the savages a cure in the decoction of the 
leaves and bark of a species of tree called in their language 
hannida, and since well known as the North American 
white pine. " This medicine," says Cartier, " worked so 
well, that if all the physicians of Montpellier and Louvain 
had been there, with all the drugs of Alexandria, they would 
not have done so much in one year as that tree did in six 
days."* 

The French be^an now to make preparations for their de- 
parture ; but a dishonourable plot was first carried into exe- 
cution, by which they succeeded in seizing Donnaconna, 
whose usefulness and liberality to them during their resi- 
dence in Canada merited a more generous return. The 
monarch, however, with the exception of a slight personal 
restraint to prevent escape, was treated with kindness, and 
soon became reconciled to his journey to Europe, although 
his subjects, inconsolable for his loss, came nightly howling 
like wolves about the ships, till assured he was in safety. 
Along with Donnaconna were secured Taignaogny and 
Domagaia, who had already been in France ; and, after a 
prosperous voyage, the French ships arrived at St. Malo on 
the 6th July, 1536.t It might have been expected that, after 
a discovery of such magnitude and importance, immediate 
measures would have been adopted to appropriate and colo- 
nize this fertile, populous, and extensive country. This 
seemed the more likely, as the arrival of Cartier and the in- 
troduction of the Indian king at court created an extraordi- 
nary sensation ; yet notwithstanding the manifest advan- 
tages, both commercial and political, likely to result from a 
settlement in Canada, the weak and shallow prejudice which 
at this time prevailed in most of the nations qf Europe, that 
no countries were valuable except such as produced gold and 

* Bamusio vol. iii. p. 451. t ^id- P- 453. 



ROBERVAL. 40 

silver, threw a damp over the project, and for nearly four 
years the French monarch would listen to no proposals for 
the establishment of a colony. 

Private adventure at length came forward to accomplish 
that which had been neglected by royal munificence, and the 
Sieur de Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy, requested per- 
mission of Francis I. to pui-sue the discovery, and attempt 
to form a settlement in the country. This the king readily 
granted ; and as Roberval was opulent, the preparations 
Were made on a great scale. He was created by Francis, on 
the 15th January, 1540, Lord of Norimbega, Lieutenant- 
general and Viceroy in Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, 
Newfoundland, Belleisle, Carpon, Labrador, the Great Bay, 
and Baccalaos, — empty and ridiculous titles, which, if mer- 
ited by any one, ought to have been conferred upon Cartier. 
This eminent navigator, however, was only permitted to ac- 
cept a subordinate command ; and as Roberval, who wished 
to appear with splendour in his new dominions, was detained 
in fitting out two vessels which were his own property. Car- 
tier was ordered to sail before him with the five ships already 
prepared. He accordingly did so ; but Donnaconna, the 
Canadian king, had died in France, and the savages, justly 
incensed at the breach of faith by which they lost their sove- 
reign, received the French with an altered countenance, de- 
vising conspiracies against them that soon led to acts of 
open hostility. The French now built for their defence, 
near the present site of Quebec, a fort, which they named 
Charlesbourg, being the first European settlement formed in 
that part of America. After a long interval Roberval arrived 
at Newfoundland ; but a jealousy had broken out between 
him and Cartier, who took the first opportunity during the 
night to part from his principal, and return with his squadron 
to France. This of course gave a death-blow to the whole 
undertaking, for Roberval was nothing without Cartier; 
and, after some unsuccessful attempts to discover a passage 
to the East Indies, he abandoned the enterprise, and returned 
to his native country. The passion for adventure, however, 
again seized him in 1549, and he and his brother, one of 
the bravest men of his time, set sail on a voyage of discov- 
ery ; but they shared the fate of Verazzano and the Cor- 
tereals, being never again heard of. These disasters effect- 
E 



50 



CORTES. 



ually checked the enthusiasm of France, while in England, 
the country to whose enterprise we have seen Europe in« 
(lebted for her first acquaintance with the American conti- 
nent, the spirit of maritime discovery appeared for some 
years ahnost totally extinct. 

The plan of this historical disquisition now leads us to 
the examination of some remarkable enterprises of the 
Spaniards for the extension of their immense dominions in 
the New World, along the more northern coasts of America. 
The bold and comprehensive mind of Cortes, the con- 




DISCOVERY OF CALIFORNIA. 51 

queror of Mexico, not content with the acquisition of that 
noble empire, formed the most extensive projects cf dis- 
covery. Alarmed at the attempts of the English to dis- 
cover a northern passage to China and Cathay, he resolved 
to make a careful survey of the whole coast, extending 
from the river Panuco in Mexico to Florida, and thence 
northwards to the Baccalacs, for the purpose of ascertaining 
whether there might not exist in that quarter a communi- 
cation with the South Sea. At the same time a squadron 
in the Pacific was to sail along the western coast of America, 
and by these simultaneous researches he trusted to find a 
strait affording a far shorter and easier route to India and 
the Moluccas, and connecting together the vast dominions 
of the Spanish crown. ><■ Charles V., to whom these pro- 
posals were presented, although wiUing to encourage every 
scheme for the extension of his power, ungenerously threw 
upon their author the whole expense of the undertaking ; 
in consequence of which, the idea of the voyage for the 
discovery of a north-west passage was abandoned, and the 
magnificent designs for the conquest of many great and 
opulent kingdoms sank at last into the equipment of two 
brigantines on the coast of the South Sea, the command of 
which was intrusted to Diego de Hurtado. This expedition 
ended calamitously in a mutiny of one of the crews, who 
brought back their ship to Xalisco : the fate of Hurtado 
was still more unfortunate, for, although he continued his 
voyage, neither he nor any of his crew were ever more 
heard of. A second expedition, intrusted by Cortes to two 
Spanish captains, Grijalva and Mendoza, was scarcely more 
fortunate. The vessels were separated on the first night 
of their voyage, and never again joined company. Grijalva 
penetrated to an island which he denominated Santa Tome, 
supposed to have been situated near the northern point of 
California, afler which he returned to Tehuantepec ; while 
Mendoza, by his haughty and tyrannical temper, having 
rendered himself odious to his crew, was murdered by the 
pilot, Ximenes, who assumed the command. Afraid of re- 
turning to Mexico, the traitor sailed northward, and dis- 
covered the coast of California, where he was soon after 

* Ramiisio, vol. iii, p, 235. Memoir of Cabot, p. 263. 



52 TJLLOA. 

attacked and slain, along with twenty of his crew, by the 
savage natives.* 

The survivors, however, brought the vessel back to Chi- 
ametta, with the tempting report that the coast abounded 
in pearls. Cortes now set out himself, with a squadron of 
three ships ; and, although his vessels were dreadfully shat- 
tered in a storm, pursued his voyage with his accustomed 
energy, till compelled to return by a summons from Mexico, 
where the breaking out of serious disturbances required his 
immediate presence. He intrusted, however, the prosecu- 
tion of the voyage to Francisco de Ulloa ; and this enter- 
prising navigator, though at first obliged by want of pro- 
visions to return to Mexico, revictualled his ships, and again 
set sail. The pious solemnity with which these ancient 
mariners were accustomed to regard their proceedings is 
strikingly shown by the first sentence of his journal : — 
"We embarked," says he, "in the haven of Acapulco, on 
the 8th of July, in the year of our Lord 1539, calling upon 
Almighty God to guide us with his holy hand to those places 
where he might be served, and his holy faith advanced ; 
and we sailed from the said port by the coast of Sacatula 
and Motin, which is sweet and pleasant, owing to the 
abundance of trees that grow there, and the rivers which 
pass through these countries, for which we often thanked 
God, their Creator."! A voyage of twenty days brought 
the squadron to the harbour of Colima, from which they set 
out on the 23d of August, and after encountering a tem- 
pest, in which their ships were severely shattered, they 
stood across the Gulf of California, and came to the mouth 
of the river St. Peter and St. Paul. On both sides of it 
were rich and extensive plains, covered with beautiful trees 
in full leaf; and farther within the land exceeding high 
mountains, clothed with wood, and affording a charming 
prospect ; after which, in a course of fifteen leagues, they 
<]iscovered two other rivers as great or greater than the 
Guadalquiver, the currents of which were so strong that 
they might be discerned three leagues off at sea. 

Ulloa spent a year in examining the coasts and havens 
on each side of the Gulf of California. In some places the 

* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 3C4; and Ramusio, Viaggi, vol. iil. p. 355. 
f Hamusio, vol. iii. p. 339. Murray's North America, vol. ii. p. 68 



•ULLOA. 53 

Spaniards found the inhabitants of great stature,* armed 
with bows and arrows, speaking a language totally distinct 
from any thing they had hitherto heard in America, and ad- 
mirably dexterous in diving and swimming. On one occa- 
sion the crews, who had landed, were attacked with fierce- 
ness by two squadrons of Indians. These natives were as 
swift as wild goats, exceedingly strong and active, and 
leaped from rock to rock, assaulting the Spaniards with 
their arrows and javelins, which broke and pierced their 
armour, and inflicted grievous wounds. It is well known 
that this nation had introduced the savage practice of em 
ploying bloodhounds in their wars against the Mexicans, 
and Ulloa now used some of these ferocious animals. The 
Indians, however, discharged a shower of arrows against 
them, " by which," says Ulloa, " Berccillo, our mastiff, who 
should have assisted us, was grievously wounded \y three 
arrows, so that we could by no entreaty get him to leave us ; 
the dog was struck in the first assault of the Indians, after he 
had behaved himself very gallantly, and greatly aided us, 
having set upon them and put eight or ten of them out of 
array. But the other mastiffs did us more harm than good, 
for when they attacked the Indians, they shot at them with 
their bows, and we received hurt and trouble in defending 
them."t 

From this unfriendly coast the Spanish discoverer pro- 
ceeded to the Baya del Abad, about a hundred leagues dis- 
tant from the point of California, where he found a more 
pacific people, who, though they exhibited great symptoms 
of suspicion, were prevailed upon to traffic, exchanging 
pearls and parrots' feathers for the beads and trinkets of the 
strangers. So little, however, were they to be trusted, that 
they afterward assaulted the ships' crews, compelling them 
to retreat to their vessels and pursue their voyage. They 
now discovered, in 28° north latitude, a great island, which 
they denominated the Isle of Cedars, taking possession of 
it in the name of the Spanish monarch. It was inhabited 
by a fierce race of Indians, powerful and well made, and 
armed with bows and arrows, besides javelins, and long 
staves thicker than a man's wrist ; with these they struck 
at the sailors, braving them with signs and rude gestures, 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 342. 

t Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 409. Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 345, 
E3 



64 ULLOA. 

till at last it was found necessary to let loose the two mas- 
tiffs Berecillo and Achillo ; upon which they suddenly took 
to flight, flying over the rough ground with the speed of 
wild horses.* Beyond this island the Spaniards attempted 
to continue their discoveries along the coast of California ; 
but a tempest having driven them back and damaged their 
vessels, they determined to return to New-Spain. In their 
homeward voyage they were in danger from a new and ex- 
traordinary enemy ; for, when sailing in the main ocean at 
a rapid rate, above 500 whales, in separate shoals, came 
athwart them within one hour's space. Their monstrous 
size created great astonishment, some of them approaching 
so near the ship as to swim under the keel from one side to 
the other ; " whereupon," says Francis Pteciado, who wrote 
the relation of the voyage, " we were in great fear lest they 
should do us some hurt ; but they could not, because the 
ship had a prosperous and good wind, and made much way, 
so that it received no harm although they touched and struck 
her.''t 

In this voyage, which for the first time made the world 
acquainted with the Gulf of California, or Sea of Cortes, 
Ulloa had not been able to spend sufficient time either in a 
survey of the coast or in establishing an intercourse with 
the natives. But not long after his return, Mendoza, the 
viceroy of New-Spain, despatched Friar Marco de Nica 
upon an expedition of discovery from Culeacan, at that 
time the most northerly Spanish settlement, to a province 
called Topira, situated in the mountains. The account 
brought back of the riches and extent of the country proved 
so tempting to the ambition of the Spaniards, that soon 
after Vasquez de Coronado, an officer of great courage and 
experience, was appointed by Mendoza to the command of 
a large force, for the reduction of the new territory ; while, 
to co-operate with this land expedition, a naval armament 
was fitted out, of which Ferdinand de Alarchon was ap- 
pointed admiral, with orders to explore the Gulf of Califor- 
nia. As far as conquest was intended, these mighty prepa- 
rations conducted to no permanent results ; but the voy- 
age of Alarchon led to some important discoveries. 

After a survey of the lower part of the coast of the gulf, 

* Ramusio, vol. iii. p. 351. Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 419. 
t Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 424. 



ALARCHON. 55 

he penetrated with much difficulty and hazard to the bot 
torn of the bay, where he found a mighty river, flowing 
with so furious a current that they could hardly sail against 
it.* This was evidently the noble river now known by the 
name of the Colorado, which has its rise in the great moun- 
tain-range near the sources of the Rio Bravo del Norte, 
and after a course of 900 miles falls into the head of the 
Gulf of California. Alarchon determined to explore it ; 
and taking with him two boats, with twenty men and some 
small pieces of artillery, he ascended to an Indian village, 
the inhabitants of which, by violent and furious gestures, 
dissuaded the Spaniards from landing. The party of na- 
tives, at first small, soon increased to a body of 250, drawn 
up in warlike fashion, with bows and arrows, and displayed 
banners. The Spanish admiral appeased them by signs, 
throwing his sword and target into the bottom of the boat, 
and placing his feet upon them. " They began," says he, 
in his letter to the viceroy Mendoza, *' to make a great mur- 
muring among themselves, when suddenly one came out 
from among them with a staff, upon which he had fixed 
some small shells, and entered into the water to give them 
to me. I took them, and made signs to him that he should 
approach. On his doing so, I embraced him, giving him in 
exchange some trinkets ; and he returning to his fellows, 
they began to look upon them and to parley together ; and 
within a while many of them cheerfully approached, to 
whom I made signs that they should lay down their ban- 
ners and leave their weapons ; which they did immediately." 
Alarchon gives a minute description of the dress, weapons, 
and appearance of these Indians. They were decked after 
sundry fashions ; the faces of some were covered with 
tattooed marks, extending lengthwise from the forehead to 
the chin, others had ^(^\y half the face thus ornamented ; 
but all were besmeared with coal, and every one as it liked 
him best. Others carried vizards before them, which had 
the shape of faces. t They wore on their heads a piece of 
deer-skin two spans broad, like a helmet, ornamented by 
various sorts of feathers stuck upon small sticks. Their 
weapons were bows and arrows, and two or three kinds oi 

* Ramusio, Viaggi, vol. iii. p. 363. 

t Such is the translation of Hakluyt; but the passage in the origineiL 
is obscure. 



56 



AL ARCH ON. 



maces of wood hardened in the fire. Their features were 
handsome and regular, but disfigured by holes bored through 
the nostrils and in many parts of the ears, on which were 
hung pendants, shells, and bones. About their loins was a 
girdle of divers colours, with a large bunch of feathers in 
the middle, which hung down like a tail. They cut their 
hair short before, but allow it behind to grow down to their 
waist. Their bodies were tattooed with coals, and the 
women wore round their waist a great wreath of painted 
feathers, glued together, and hanging down both before and 
behind.* 

Having procured by signs a pacific reception from this 
new people, Alarchon found to his mortification that they 
did not understand his interpreter ; but, after a little inter- 
course, observing that they worshipped the sun, he unscru- 
pulously intimated to them by significant gestures that he 
came from that luminary; "upon which they marvelled," 
says he, " and began to survey me from top to toe, and showed 
me more favour than they did before." Soon after this 
a man was found among them who could speak the language 
of the interpreter; and an intercourse of a very extraordi- 
nary nature took place, in which the honesty and simplicity 
of the Indians are strikingly contrasted with the false and 
unprincipled policy of the Spaniards. The passage is un- 
commonly graphic and interesting : " The Indian first de- 
sired to know what nation we were, and whence we came 1 
Whether we came out of the water, or inhabited the earth, 
or had fallen from the heaven ?" To this the admiral re- 
plied, that they were Christians, and came from far to see 
them, being sent by the sun, to which he pointed. " After 
this introduction, the Indian," continues Alarchon in his 
account ot the voyage, " began again to ask me how the sun 
had sent me, seeing he went aloft in the sky and never stood 
still, and for these many years neither they nor their oldest 
men had ever seen such as we were, and the sun till that 
hour had never sent any other. I answered him, it was 
true the sun pursued his course aloft in the sky, and never 
stood still, but nevertheless they might perceive that at his 
setting and rising he came near the earth, where his dwelling 
was, and that they always saw him come out of one place; 

* RamuBio, vol. iii. p. 364 



ALARCHON. 57 

and he had created me in that land whence he came, in the 
same way that he had made many others whom he sent into 
other parts ; and now he had desired me to visit this same 
river, and the people who dwelt near it, that I might speak 
with them, and become their friend, and give them such 
things as they needed, and charge them not to make war 
agamst each other. On this he required me to tell them the 
cause why the sun had not sent me sooner to pacify the wars 
which had continued a long time among them, and wherein 
many had been slain. I told him the reason was that I 
was then but a child. He next inquired why we brought only- 
one interpreter with us who comprehended our language, 
and wherefore we understood not all other men, seeing we 
were children of the sun ] To which our interpreter an- 
swered, that the sun had also begotten him, and given him 
a language to understand him, his master the admiral, and 
others ; the sun knew well that they dwelt there, but because 
that great light had many other businesses, and because his 
master was but young, he sent him no sooner. The Indian 
interpreter," continues Alarchon, " then turning to me, said 
suddenly, ' Comest thou, therefore, to be our lord, and that 
we should serve thee ]' To which I answered, I came not 
to be their lord, but rather their brother, and to give them 
such things as I had. He then inquired whether I was the 
sun's kinsman, or his child 1 To which I replied I was his 
son, but those who were with me, though all born in one 
country, were not his children ; upon which he raised his 
voice loudly and said, ' Seeing thou doest us so much good, 
and dost not wish us to make war, and art the child of the 
sun, we will all receive thee for our lord, and always serve 
thee ; therefore we pray thee not to depart hence and leave 
us.' After which he suddenly turned to the people, and be- 
gan to tell them that I was the child of the sun, and therefore 
they should all choose me for their lord."* The Indians 
appeared to be well pleased with this proposal, and assisted 
the Spaniards in their ascent of the river to the distance of 
eighty-five leagues ; but finding it impossible to open a com- 
munication with the army under Coronado, Alarchon put 
about his ships, and returned to Mexico.! 



* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 429. Ramusio, vol. iii. d. 3j6 
^ ♦ Hakluyt, vol. iii. d. 438, 439 . 



68 DE FU(^A. 

After the expeditions of Coronado and Alarchon, in 1542, 
the spirit of enterprise among the Spaniards experienced 
some check, owing probably to the feeUng of mortification 
and disappointment which accompanied the return of these 
officers. Yet Mendoza, unwilHng wholly to renounce the 
high hopes he had entertained, despatched a small squadron 
under Rodriguez Cabrillo, which traced the yet undiscovered 
coast of North America some degrees beyond Cape Men- 
docino ,• and in 1596 and 1602, Sebastian Viscaino extended 
these discoveries along the coast of New-Albion to a river 
which appears to have been the present Columbia. It has 
even been asserted by some authors, that, four years prior to 
the voyage of Viscaino, Juan de Fu9a, a veteran Spanish 
pilot, conducted a ship beyond the mouth of the Columbia, 
and doubling Cape Flattery, entered the Straits of Georgia, 
through which he passed till he came to Queen Charlotte's 
Sound. De Fuga imagined, not unnaturally, considering the 
imperfect and limited state of geographical knowledge, that 
he had now sailed through the famous and fabulous Strait 
of Anian : and that, instead of being in the Pacific as he 
then actually was, he had conducted his vessel into the spa- 
cious expanse of the Atlantic. With this information he 
returned to Acapulco ; but the Spanish viceroy received 
him coldly, and withheld all encouragement or reward, — a 
circumstance to which we may perhaps ascribe the cessation 
from this period of all further attempts at discovery by this 
nation upon the north-west coast of America. The whole 
voyage of De Fu^a, however, rests on apocryphal authority. 



CHAPTER II. 

Russian and English Voyages. 

Behring— Tchirikow— Cook and Gierke— Meares— Vancouver— 
Kotzebiie. 

As the zeal of the Spanish government in extending their 
discoveries upon the north-west coast of America abated, 
another great nation, hitherto scarcely known to Europe^ 
undertook at a later period the task which they had aban* 



BEHRING'S FIRST VOYAGE. 69 

•3one(l. Russia, within little more than half a century, had 
grown up from a collection of savage, undisciplined, and 
unconnected tribes, into a mighty people. Her conquests 
had spread with amazing rapidity till they embraced the 
whole of the north of Asia, and under the energetic admin- 
istration of Peter the Great this empire assumed at once 
that commanding influence in the scale of European nations 
which it has continued to preserve till the present times. 
Among the many great projects of this remarkable man, 
the solution of the question, whether Asia, on the north-east, 
was united with America, occupied a prominent place ; and 
it appears that during his residence in Holland in 1717, he 
had been sohcited by some of the most eminent patrons of 
discovery among the Dutch to institute an expedition to 
investigate the subject. The resolution he then formed to 
set this great point at rest by a voyage of discovery was 
never abandoned ; but his occupation in war, and the mul- 
tiplicity of those state-affairs which engrossed his attention, 
caused him to delay its execution from year to year, till he 
was seized with his last illness. Upon his death-bed he 
wrote, with his own hand, instructions to Admiral Apraxin, 
snd an order to have them carried into immediate execution. 
They directed, first, that one or two boats with decks should 
be built at Kamtschatka, or at any other convenient place ; 
secondly, that with these a survey should be made of the 
most northerly coast of his Asiatic empire, to determine 
whether they were or were not contiguous to America ; and, 
thirdly, th^^t the persons to whom the expedition was intrusted 
should endeavour to ascertain whether on these coasts there 
was any port belonging to Europeans, and keep a strict 
look-out for any European ship, taking care also to employ 
some skilful men in making inquiries regarding the name 
and situation of the coasts which they discovered, — of all 
which they were to keep an exact journal, and transmit it 
to St. Petersburg. 

Upon the death of Peter the Great, which happened 
shortly after these instructions were drawn up, the Empress 
Catherine entered fully into his views, and gave orders to 
lit out an expedition for their accomplishment. The com- 
mand was intrusted to Captain Vitus Behring. Under his 
orders were two lieutenants, Martin Spangberg and Alexei 
Tchirikow ; and, besides other subaltern officers, they en- 



60 

gaged several excellent ship-carpenters. On the 5th of Feb- 
ruary, 1725, they set out from St. Petersburg, and on the 16t& 
March arrived at Tobolsk, the capital of Siberia. After a 
survey of the rivers Irtisch, Ob, Ket, Jenesei, Tungusca, 
and Jlim, they wintered at Ilim, and, in the spring of 1726, 
proceeded down the river Lena to Jakutzk. The naval stores 
and part of the provisions were now intrusted to Lieutenant 
Spangberg, who embarked on the Juduma, intending to sail 
from it into the Maia, and then by the Aldan into the Lena. 
He was followed by Captain Behring, who proceeded by 
land with another part of the stores, while Lieutenant 
Tchirikow staid at Jakutzk, with the design of transporting 
the remainder overland. The cause of this complicated 
division of labour w^as the impassable nature of the country 
between Jakutzk and Ochotzk, which is impracticable for 
wagons in summer, or for sledges during winter. Such, 
indeed, were the difficulties of transporting these large bales 
of provisions, that it was the 30th July, 1727, before the 
whole business was completed. In the mean time a vessel 
had been built at Ochotzk, in which the naval stores were 
conveyed to Bolscheretzkoi in Kamtschatka. From this 
they proceeded to Nischnei Kamtschatkoi Ostrog, where a 
boat was built similar to the packet-boats used in the Baltic. 
After the necessary articles were shipped. Captain Behring, 
determining no longer to delay the most important part of his 
enterprise, set sail from the mouth of the river Kamtschatka 
on the 14th of July, steering north-east, and for the first 
time laying down a survey of this remote and desolate coast. 
When they reached the latitude of 64° 30', eight men of the 
wild tribe of the Tschuktschi pushed oft' from the coast in a 
leathern canoe, called a baidar, formed of seal-skins, and 
fearlessly approached the Russian ship. A communication 
was immediately opened by means of a Koriak interpreter ; 
and, on being invited, they came on board without hesita- 
tion. By these natives Behring was informed that the coast 
turned towards the west. On reaching the promontory called 
Serdze Kamen, the accuracy of this information was estab- 
lished, for the land was seen extending a great way in a 
western direction, — a circumstance from which Behring 
somewhat too hastily concluded, that he had reached the 
extremest northern point of Asia. He was of opinion that 
thence the coast must run to the west, and therefore no 



behring's second voyage. 61 

junction with America could take place. Satisfied that h@ 
had now fulfilled his orders, he returned to the river Kam- 
tschatka, and again took up his winter-quarters at Nischnei 
Kamtschatkoi Ostrog.* 

In this voyage it was conjectured by Behring and his 
officers, from the reports of the Kamtschadales, that in all 
probability another country must be situated towards the 
east, at no great distance from Serdze Kamen ; yet no im- 
mediate steps were taken either to complete the survey of 
the most northerly coasts of Ochozkoi, or to explore the 
undiscovered region immediately opposite the promontory. 
In the course of a campaign, however, against the fierce 
and independent nation of the Tschuktshi, Captain Paw- 
lutzki penetrated by the rivers Nboina, Bela, and Tcherna, 
to the borders of the Frozen Sea ; and after defeating the 
enemy in three battles, passed in triumph to a promontory 
supposed to be the Tgchukotzkoi Noss. From this point 
he sent part of his little army in canoes, while he himself 
conducted the remaining division by land round the promon- 
tory, taking care to march along the seacoast, and to com- 
municate every evening with his canoes. In this manner 
Pawlutzki reached the promontory which is conjectured to 
have been the farthest Umit of Behring's voyage, and thence 
by an inland route returned, on the 21st October, 1730, to 
Anadirsk, having advanced an important step in ascertain- 
ing the separation between America and the remote north- 
easterly coast of Asia. 

Although the separation of the two continents had been 
thus far fixed, a wide field of discovery yet remained unex» 
plored ; and in 1741, Behring, Spangberg, and Tchirikow 
once more volunteered their services for this purpose. These 
offers were immediately accepted ; the captain was pro. 
moted to the rank of a commander, the two lieutenants 
were made captains, and instructions drawn up for the con- 
duct of the expedition, in which it was directed that the 
destination of the voyages should be eastward to the con- 
tinent of America, and southward to Japan, while, at the 
same time, an endeavour was to be made for the discovery 
of that northern passage through the Frozen Sea which 



* Harris's Collection of Voyagfis, vol. ii. p. 1020, 1021 ; Coxe's Rus- 
sian Discoveries, p. 23, 24, 94. 

F 



62 BEHRING AND TCHIRIKOW : 

had been so repeatedly but unsuccessfully attempted by 
other European nations. The voyage to Japan, under the 
command of Captain Spangberg and Lieutenant Walton, 
was eminently successful ; and one of its material results 
was the correction of a geographical error of considerable 
magnitude, by which that island had hitherto been placed 
under the same meridian as Kamtschatka, instead of 11° 
more to the westward. The expedition of Behring, no less 
important and satisfactory, was destined to be fatal to its 
excellent commander. After a winter spent in the harbour 
of Awatscha, or Petropalauska, on the west side of the 
great peninsula of Kamtschatka, Behring got his stores on 
board the two packet-boats built at Ochotzk, expressly for 
the intended American discoveries. The first of these, the 
St. Peter, was that in which the commander embarked ; the 
second, the St. Paul, was intrusted to Captain Tchirikow. 
Along with Behring went Lewis de Lisle de la Croyere, 
Professor of Astronomy, while Mr. George WilHam Steller, 
an experienced chymist and botanist, accompanied Tchi- 
rikow. 

All things being ready, a council of officers was held, in 
which the question regarding the course they should steer 
was considered, and it happened, unfortunately for the ex- 
pedition, that an important error had crept into the map pre- 
sented by the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg to the 
senate, in laying down a coast south-east from Awatscha, 
extending fifteen degrees from west to east, while no land 
was marked due east. At this spot were written on the map 
the words " Land seen by Don .lean de Gama :" and, trust- 
ing to the accuracy of this information, it was determined 
to steer first south-east-by-east, in the hope of discovering 
this continent ; after which they might follow its coasts as a 
guide towards the north and east. On the 4th of June, 1741, 
they accordingly weighed anchor and steered south-east-by- 
south, till, on the 12th, they found themselves in latitude 
46°, without the slightest appearance of the coast of De Ga- 
ma. Convinced at last of their error, they held on a north- 
erly course as far as 50° north latitude, and were just about to 
steer due east, with the hope of reaching the continent of 
America, when the two ships were separated in a violent 
storm accompanied by a thick fog. Behring exerted every 
effort to rejoin his consort ; but all proved in vain. Hb 



THEIR SECOND VOYAGE. 63 

cruised for three days between 50° and 51° north latitude, 
after which he steered back to the south-east as far as 45° ; 
but Tchirikow, after the storm, had taken an easterly course 
from 48° north latitude, so that they never met again. 

Both, however, pursued their discoveries simultaneously, 
and on the 15th of July, being in 56° north latitude, Tchi- 
rikow reached the coast of America. The shore proved to 
be steep and rocky, and, in consequence of the high surf, 
he did not venture to approach it, but anchoring in deep 
■water, despatched his mate, Demetiew, with the long-boat 
and ten men on shore. The boat was provisioned for some 
days, the men armed and furnished with minute instructions 
as to their mode of proceeding, and the s'gnals by which 
they were to communicate with the ship. But neither mate, 
men, nor barge were ever again heard of. This was the 
more mysterious, as all at first appeared to go well with, 
them. The barge was seen from the ship to row into a bay 
behind a small cape, and the appointed signals were made, 
intimating that she had landed in safety. Day after day 
the signals agreed on continued from the shore. The 
people on board began at last to think that the barge had 
probably received damage in landing, and could not return 
till she was repaired, and it was resolved to send the small 
boat on shore, with the boatswain Sawelow and six men. 
Among these were some carpenters and a careener, well 
armed and provided with the necessary materials, and the 
boatswain had orders to return with Demetiew in the long- 
boat the moment the necessary repairs were completed. 
But neither mate nor boatswain ever came back ; and the 
most dark surmises of their fate were excited by the cessa- 
tion of the signals, and the continual ascent of a large 
volume of smoke from the landing-place. Next day, how- 
ever, a revival of hope was felt at the sight of two boats 
which were observed rowing from the land towards the ship. 
It was believed to be Demetiew and Sawelow ; and Tchiri- 
kow ordered all hands on deck, to prepare for setting sail on 
a moment's warnmg. A few minutes changed these cheer- 
ful anticipations into sorrow ; for, as the boats approached, 
it was discovered that they vvere filled by American savages, 
who, seeing many persons on deck, instantly shipped their 
paddles and remained at a cautious distance. They then 
stood up, and crying with a loud Voice " Agai, agai !" re« 



64 BEHRING AND TCHIRIKOW : 

turned with great speed to the shore. A strong west wind 
now rose and threatened to dash the vessel on the rocky 
coast, so that they were obliged to weigh anchor and put to 
sea without the slightest hope of hearing any further intelli- 
gence of their men ; for they had no more small boats, and 
all communication with the shore was cut off. Tchirikow, 
however, cruised some days in the neighbourhood, and when 
the weather became milder, returned towards the spot where 
his people landed ; but all appeared silent, lonely, and un- 
inhabited : and in a council of the officers, it was determined 
to set out on their return, though with the most poignant 
regret at being obliged to leave this remote and desolate 
coast without hearing the slightest account of their com- 
panions. They arrived at Kamtschatka on the 27th of 
July.* No news of the fate of Demetiew and Sawelow 
ever reached Russia ; but it is evident that they had been 
successively attacked and murdered by the savages. " The 
natives of this part of the north-west coast of America," 
says Captain Burney, "live principally by hunting and 
catching game, in which occupations they are in the con- 
tinual practice of every species of decoy. They imitate 
the whistlings of birds, — they have carved wooden masks 
resembling the heads of animals, which they put on over 
their own and enter the woods in masquerade. They had 
observed the signals made to the ship by the Russian boat 
which first came to land ; and the continuance of signals 
afterward seen and heard by the Russians on board were 
doubtless American imitations."! 

Exactly three days after Tchirikow descried land, it 
appears that Commodore Behring also got sight of the con- 
tinent in 58° 28", or, according to another account, 60° north 
latitude. The prospect was magnificent and awful, ex- 
hibiting high mountains covered from the summits with 
snow. One of these, far inland, was particularly remarked : 
it was plainly discernible sixteen German miles out at sea ; 
and Steller says in his journal, that in all Siberia he had 
not met with a more lofty mountain.t The commodore, 
being much in want of water, approached the coast with 



* Muller, D^couvertes faites par lesRusses, vol. i. p. 234. 

t Burney's History of North-ea»tern Voyages of Discovery, p. 180. 

i Ibid. p. 164. 



THEIR SECOND VOYAGE. 65 

the hope of being able to land. He accordingly reached the 
shore on the 20th July, and anchored under a large island 
not far from the continent. A point of land projecting into 
the sea at this place they called St. Elias Cape, as it was 
discovered on that saint's day ; while another headland was 
denominated St. Hermogenes ; and between these lay a bay, 
in which, if it became necessary to take shelter, they trusted 
they would find security. Two boats were now launched, 
in the first of which Kytrof, the master of the fleet, was 
sent to examine the bay, while Steller proceeded with the 
other to fetch water. Kytrof found a convenient anchorage ; 
and on an adjacent island were a few empty huts formed 
of smooth boards, ornamented in some places with rude 
carving. Within the huts they picked up a small box of 
poplar, a hollow earthen ball in which a stone rattled, con- 
jectured to be a child's toy, and a whetstone, on which it 
appeared that copper knives had been sharpened.* Steller, 
on the other hand, near the spot where he landed, discovered 
a cellar in which was a store of red salmon, and a sweet 
herb dressed for food in the same manner as in Kamtschatka. 
Near them were ropes, and various pieces of household 
furniture and of domestic utensils. At a short distance he 
came to a place where the savages had recently dined, — 
beside which they found an arrow, and an instrument for 
procuring fire exactly similar to that used for the same pur- 
pose in Kamtschatka. The sailors who fetched the fresh 
water had found two fireplaces with the ashes newly ex- 
tinguished, and near them a parcel of hewn wood, with 
some smoked fishes like large carp. They observed also 
marks of human footsteps in the grass, but no natives were 
seen. In case, however, they should return, some small 
presents, such as it was conjectured might be suited to their 
taste or their wants, were left in the huts. These consisted 
of a piece of green glazed linen, two iron kettles, two knives, 
two iron Chinese tobacco-pipes, a pound of tobacco leaves, 
and twenty large glass beads. Steller, an enthusiastic 
naturalist, entreated that he might have the command of the 
small boat and a few men, to complete a more accurate sur- 
vey of this new coast ; but Behring, who was from his ad- 
vanced age rather timid and over-cautious, put a decided 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 42, 43. 



66 BEHRINQ AND TCHIRIKOW I 

negative upon the proposal ; and his scientific companion, 
having climbed a steep rock to obtain a view of the adjacent 
country, found his progress interrupted by an immediate 
order to come on board. " On descending the mountain," 
says he in his journal, " which was overspread with a forest 
without any traces of a road, finding it impassable, I re- 
ascended, looked mournfully at the limits of my progress, 
turned my eyes towards the continent which it was not in 
my power to explore, and observed at the distance of a few 
versts some smoke ascending from a wooden eminence. 
*• * * Again receiving a positive order to 

join the ship, I returned with my collection."* 

Having put to sea next day, the 21st of July, they found 
it impossible, according to their original intention, to explore 
the coast as far as 65° north latitude, as it seemed to extend 
indefinitely to the south-west. It was studded with many 
small islands, the navigation through which, especially 
during the night, was dangerous and tedious. On the 30th 
of July they discovered, in latitude 56°, an island which they 
called Tumannoi Ostrog, or Foggy Island ; and soon after 
the scurvy broke out with the most virulent symptoms in the 
ship's crew ; so that, in hopes of procuring water, they 
again ran to the north, and soon discovered the continent, 
with a large group of islands near the shore, between which 
they came to anchor. These they called the Schumagins, 
after the name of one of their men who died there. While 
at this anchorage the weather became boisterous, and some 
brackish water procured from one of the largest islands 
increased the virulence of the disease, which prevailed to 
an alarming degree. All attempts to put to sea proved for 
some days unsuccessful, owing to the strong contrary winds ; 
and at length one morning they were roused by a loud cry 
from one of the islands, upon which they saw a fire burning. 
Soon after, two Americans rowed towards the ship in their 
canoes, which in shape resembled those of Greenland and 
Davis's Strait. They stopped, however, at some distance, 
and it was discovered that they not only understood the 
language of the calumet, or pipe of peace, employed by the 
North American Indians, but had these symbolical instru- 
ments along with them. They were sticks with hawks' wings 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 40, 41. 



THEIR SECOND VOYAGE. 67 

attached to one end. It was at first impossible to induce 
the natives to come on board ; and Behring, anxious to 
establish a communication, and to become acquainted with 
the country, despatched Lieutenant Waxel in the boat with 
nine men well armed, among whom was a Tschuktschian 
or Koriak interpreter. It was found, however, that the 
savages were utterly ignorant of his language ; and Waxel, 
having sent some men on shore, who fastened the boat by a 
long rope passed round a rock on the beach, commenced a 
friendly intercourse by means of signs. The Americans 
were disposed to be on the most amicable terms with their 
new acquaintances, giving them whales' flesh, the only pro- 
vision they appeared to possess ; and at last one of them so 
far overcame his fears as to join the Russian lieutenant in 
the boat, which still lay a little way from the shore. Anx- 
ious to conciliate his favour and treat him with distinction, 
Waxel somewhat thoughtlessly presented him with a cup 
of brandy ; but the effect proved the reverse of what was 
expected. He made the most ludicrous wry faces, spit vio- 
lently out of his mouth all that he had not swallowed, and 
cried aloud to his companions on the shore, complaining 
of the treatment he had experienced. " Our men," says 
Mr. Steller in his journal, " thought the Americans had 
sailors' stomachs, and endeavoured to remove his disgust by 
presenting him with a lighted pipe of tobacco, which he 
accepted ; but he was equally disgusted with his attempt to 
smoke. The most civilized European would be affected in 
the same manner if presented with toad-stool, or rotten fish 
and willow bark, which are delicacies with the Kamtscha- 
dales." It was evident he had never tasted ardent spirits 
or smoked tobacco till this moment ; and although every 
effort was made to sooth him and restore his confidence, by 
oflfering him needles, glass beads, an iron kettle, and other 
gifts, he would accept of nothing, and made the most eager 
and imploring signs to be set on shore. In this it was 
judged right to gratify him, and Waxel, at the same time, 
called out to the sailors who were on the beach to come 
back ; the Americans made a violent attempt to detain them, 
but two blunderbusses were fired over their heads, and had 
the efiTect of making them fall flat on the ground, wiiile the 
Russians escaped and rejoined their companions. 
This adventure gave them au opportunity of examining 



68 BEHRING AND TCHIRIKOW : 

this new people, now for the first time visited by Europeans. 
*' The islanders were of moderate stature, but tolerably well 
proportioned ; their arms and legs very fleshy. Their hair 
was straight and of a glossy blackness ; their faces brown 
and flat, but neither broad nor large ; their eyes were black, 
and their lips thick and turned upwards ; their necks were 
short, their shoulders broad, and their bodies thick but not 
corpulent. Their upper garment was made of whales' 
intestines, their breeches of seals' skins, and their caps 
formed out of the hide of sea-lions, adorned with feathers 
of various birds, especially the hawk. Their nostrils were 
stopped with grass, and their noses as flat as Calmucks' ; 
their faces painted, some with red, others with diflferent 
colours ; and some of them, instead of caps, wore hats 
of bark, coloured green and red, open at the top, and 
shaped like candle-screens, apparently for protecting the 
eyes against the rays of the sun. These hats might lead 
us to suppose that the natives of this part of America are 
of Asiatic descent ; for the Kamtschadales and Koriaks 
wear the like, of which several specimens may be seen in 
the Museum at St. Petersburg."* 

At this time Behring being confined by severe sickness, 
the chief command fell on Waxel, M-ho was preparing to 
sail, when seven Americans came in their boats to the ship's 
side, and two of them catching hold of the entrance-ladder, 
presented their bonnets and a carved image of bone, bearing 
some resemblance to a human figure. They likewise held 
up the calumet, and would have come aboard, but the sailors 
were taking up the anchor, and the breeze freshening, they 
were under the necessity of making towards the shore as 
quickly as possible. There was time, however, to give a few 
presents, and as the ship passed by the point where they 
stood, she was saluted with loud and friendly shouts.f 

They had now to struggle against a tedious continuance 
of westerly wind, accompanied with thick fogs, which ren- 
dered the navigation in these unknown seas perilous in the 
extreme. On the 24th of September the mist cleared away, 
and disclosed a high and desolate coast, which a strong 
south wind made it dangerous to approach. The majority 
of the crew were by this time disabled by the scur\y, and 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 63. 

t Burney'3 Nortli-easteru Voiages of Discoverv. d. 170 



THEIR SECOND VOYAGE. 69 

the rest so weak, that to manage the vessel during the tem- 
pestuous weather was almost impossible. A violent gale 
soon after began to blow from the west, which gradually in- 
creased, and drove the ship far to the south-east. The storm 
continued for seventeen days, — a fact to which there are 
few parallels in the history of shipwrecks ; and the pilot, 
Andrew Hesselberg, who had served for fift}'^ years in seve- 
ral parts of the world, declared he had never witnessed so 
long and terrible a gale. Meanwhile they carried as little 
sail as possible, and were driven for a fortnight at the mercy 
of the wind, under a sky as black as midnight, so that all 
the time they saw neither sun nor stars. When the storm 
abated, they found themselves, by the ship's reckoning, in 
48° 18" north latitude. Steller, in his journal, draws a 
striking picture of their extreme misery : — " The general 
distress and mortality," says he, " increased so fast, that 
not only the sick died, but those who still struggled to be 
numbered on the healthy list, when relieved from their posts, 
fainted and fell down dead, of which the scantiness of water, 
the want of biscuits and brandy, cold, wet, nakedness, ver- 
min, fear, and terror were not the least causes."* In these 
circumstances it became difficult to determine whether they 
should return to Kamtschatka or seek a harbour on the 
nearest American coast. At last, in a council of officers, 
they embraced the first of these alternatives, and again sailed 
north, after which they steered towards the west. 

On the 29th of October they approached two islands 
resembling the two first of the Kurilian group. The long- 
wished-for coast of Kamtschatka, however, did not appear, 
and the condition of the vessel and crew began to be 
deplorable. The men, notwithstanding their diseased state 
and want of proper food, were obliged to work in the cold ; 
and as the continual rains had now changed into hail and 
snow, and the nights shortened and grew darker, their suf- 
ferings were extreme. The commodore himself had been 
for some time totally disabled by disease from taking an 
active command, his wonted energy and strength of mind 
left him, and he became childishly suspicious and indolent. 
Among the seamen the sickness was so dreadful, that the 
two sailors whose berth used to be at the rudder were led 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 65. 



70 BEHRING AND TCHIRIKOW : 

to it by others, who themselves could walk with difficulty. 
When one could steer no longer, another equally feeble was 
supported to his place. Many sails they durst not hoist, 
because no one was strong enough to lower them in case 
of need, while some of the sheets were so thin and rotten 
that a violent wind would have torn them to pieces. The 
rest of this interesting but deeply affecting voyage may be 
given in the excellent abstract of Captain Burney. " On 
November 4th, at eight in the morning, they once more saw 
land ; but only the tops of the mountains at first appeared, 
and the shore was so distant, that, although they stood 
towards it the whole day, night came on before they could 
get near enough to look for anchorage. At noon that day 
they made their latitude by observation to be 56° north. On 
the morning of the 5th, it was discovered that almost all the 
shrouds on the starboard side of the ship were broken, 
which happened from contraction and tenseness caused by 
the frost ; for, without other mention made of the weather, 
it is complained that the cold was insupportable. In this 
distress the commodore ordered the lieutenant to call all the 
officers together, to consult on their best mode of proceed- 
ing ; and the increased numbers of the sick, with the want 
of fresh water, determined them at all hazards to seek relief 
at this land. The wind was northerly, and they had sound- 
ings at the depth of thirty-seven fathoms, with a sandy 
bottom. They now steered in towards the land, west-south- 
west and south-west, and two hours after, at five in the 
evening, they anchored in twelve fathoms, the bottom sand, 
and veered out throe-quarters of a cable. The sea now 
began to run high, and at six the cable gave way. Another 
anchor was let go, yet the ship struck twice, though they 
found, by the lead, five fathoms depth of water. The cable 
quickly parted ; and it was fortunate a third anchor was not 
ready, for while they were preparing it a high wave threw 
the ship over a bank of rocks, where all at once she was in 
still water. They now dropped their anchor in four fathoms 
and a half, about 600 yards from the land, and lay quiet 
during the rest of the night ; but in the morning they found 
themselves surrounded with rocks and breakers. They 
were certain that the coast of Kamtschatka was not far dis- 
tant ; but the condition of the ship and the crew, with the 
advanced season of the year, rendered it apparent that they 



THEIR SECOND VOYAGE. "^l 

must remain upon this land all winter. Those who were 
able to work went on shore to prepare lodgings for the sick. 
This they accomplished by digging pits or caverns between 
some sandhills near a brook which ran from a mountain to 
the sea, using their sails as a temporary covering. There 
was no appearance of inhabitants ; nor were any trees seen, 
although driftwood was found along the shore. No grass 
nor antiscorbutic herbs were discoverable ; the island, 
indeed, was so deeply covered with snow, that even if it 
produced any antiseptic plants, the patients had not strength 
to lay them open ; and at this time the Russians were little 
acquainted with the proper remedies for this dreadful dis- 
ease. On the 8th of November they began to transport the 
sick to the miserable habitations which had been prepared 
for them ; and it was remarkable that some who seemed the 
least reduced, expired the moment tliey were exposed to the 
fresh air, and others in making an attempt to stand upon 
deck.* 

On the 9th of November, Behring himself was carried 
ashore by four men on a handbarrow, carefully secured from 
the air. The ship had been cast on the east side of the 
island, and the coast was examined both to the north and 
south ; but no traces of inhabitants were found. Along the 
shores were many sea-otters, and the interior swarmed with 
blue and white foxes. "We saw," says Steller in his jour- 
nal, "the most dismal and terrifying objects: the foxes 
mangled the dead before they could be buried, and were even 
not afraid to approach the living and helpless who lay scat- 
tered here and there, and smell to them like dogs. This 
man exclaimed that he was perishing of cold ; the other 
complained of hunger and thirst ; and their mouths were so 
much affected by scurvy that their gums grew over their 
teeth like a sponge. The stone-foxes, which swarmed round 
our dwellings, became so bold and mischievous, that they 
carried away and destroyed different articles of provision 

* " It must," says Captain Burney, " be within the memory of many, 
the great care with which the apartments of the sick were cuarded 
against the admission of fresh air, and in few instances more than in 
what was called the sick-berth on board a ship of war, where it was 
customary to keep a number of diseased persons labouring under differ- 
ent maladies enclosed and crowded together; and fortunately, since tlie 
date of this expedition, the management of the sick with respect to air 
has undergone a very essential reibrm." 



72 DEATH OF BEHRING. 

and clothing. One took a shoe, another a boot, a third a 
glove, a fourth a coat ; and they even stole the iron imple- 
ments ; while all attempts to drive them away were ineffec- 
tual."* 

Lieutenant Waxel, on whom, since the illness of the 
commodore, the command devolved, and Kytrow, the ship- 
master, continued healthy at sea ; and the necessity for 
exertion, in seeing every thing sent on shore, had a favour- 
able effect in repelling the attacks of the disease. At last, 
however, they too were laid up, and soon became so weak 
that, on the 21st of November, they were carried ashore like 
the rest. During this dreadful residence on the island, the 
men lived chiefly on the flesh of the sea-otters, which was 
so hard and tough that it could scarcely be torn to pieces by 
the teeth. The intestines were mostly used for the sick; 
and Steller, in his descriptions of the marine animals of 
these regions, reckons the flesh of the sea-otter as a specific 
against the scurvy. When not wanted for food they were 
killed for their fine skins, 900 being collected on the island, 
and equally divided among the crew. A dead whale, which 
was thrown upon the coast, they called their magazine, as 
it proved a resource when nothing better could be got. 
The flesh was cut into small pieces, which they boiled a 
long time to separate the oil from it as much as possible, 
and the remaining hard and sinewy parts they swallowed 
without chewing. 

In this miserable manner they continued to support life ; 
but some of the crev/ sunk daily under the disease, and on 
the 8th of December the commodore expired. Behring was 
an officer of extraordinary merit ; and, until reduced by the 
disease of which he became ihe victim, endowed with 
unshaken perseverance and energy. His voyage set at rest 
the disputed point regarding the separation of the two con- 
tinents of A«5ia and America ; and he has deservedly 
bequeathed his name to the strait which he was the first to 
explore, and the desolate island on which he died. It is 
melancholy to think, that after the exertions he had made in 
the cause of naval discovery, his life terminated so miser- 
ably ; for it may almost be said that he was buried alive : 
the sand rolled down continually from the side of the cav- 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 73, 74. 



STATE OF TJIE EXPEDITION. 73 

ern in which he lay, and at last covered his feet ; nor would 
he suffer it to be removed, saying he felt warmth from it, 
when he was cold in all other parts ; it thus gradually in- 
creased upon him till his body was more than half-concealed ; 
so that when he at last expired, it was found necessary to 
unearth him previously to his being interred. " Behring," 
says Steller, who was by no means disposed to exaggerate 
the good qualities of his commander, '• displayed in his ill- 
ness the most affecting resignation to the will of the Su- 
preme Being, and enjoyed his understanding and speech to 
the last. He was convinced that the crew had been driven 
on an unknown land ; yet he would not terrify others by 
declaring his opinion, but cherished their hopes and encour- 
aged their exertions. He was buried according to the Prot- 
estant ritual, and a cross was erected over his grave to mark 
the spot, and to serve also as an evidence that the Russians 
had taken possession of the country."* 

Soon after the death of the commodore the whole crew 
were sheltered from the severity of the winter in subterra- 
nean dwellings contiguous to each other, and recovered so 
much strength by the use of sweet and excellent water, and 
the flesh of the sea-animals killed in hunting, that their ex- 
istence became comparatively comfortable. Of the manner 
in which they passed their lime during the dreary winter 
months, from December to May, Steller has left us in his 
journal a minute and interesting account. In March the 
sea-otters disappeared, either from the instinct of changing 
their abode at particular seasons of the year, or banished by 
continual persecution ; but their place was supplied by other 
marine animals, which, in their turn, also left them. " To 
supply ourselves with fuel," says Steller, " was likewise a 
considerable labour: as the island produced nothing but 
willow-bushes, and the drift-wood was often deeply buried in 
the snow till the end of March, we were compelled to bring 
it from a distance of even fifteen or sixteen versts ; and our 
load upon these expeditions amounted to from sixty to 
eighty pounds, besides our hatchets and kettles, with the 
necessary implements for mending our shoes and clothes. 
In April, however, we were relieved from this labour by the 
thaw and breaking up of the vessel." An anecdote of aa 

* Coxe's Russian Discoveries, p. 79. 
G 



74 THEV BUILD A NEW VESSEL. 

escape made by them in hunting, as it is given by the same 
lively writer, presents us with a striking picture of their 
manner of life upon the island. " On the 5th of April," 
says he, " during a gleam of favourable weather, Steneser 
and myself, with my Cossack and a servant of Behring, 
went on a hunting expedition. Having killed as m.any sea- 
otters as we were able to carry, we made a fire in a cliff, 
where we proposed to pass the night. At midnight a vio- 
lent hurricane arose, and the snow fell in such quantities 
that we should have been buried had we not run continually 
backwards and forwards. In the morning, after a long and 
fruitless search for shelter, we resigned ourselves to our fate ; 
but the Cossack fortunately discovered a large cavern, which 
seemed to have been formed by an earthquake, v/here we 
entered with our provision and wood. It afforded a secure 
retreat from the weather, contained a cavity in which we 
could hide our provisions from the depredations of the stone- 
foxes, and was provided with an aperture which served the 
purpose of a chimney. The cave and bay, which were 
named in compUment to me, were inhabited by numerous 
foxes, which retired on our approach through the chimney ; 
but the smoke from our fire caused such a spitting and 
sneezing among them as gave no small diversion to the 
party. At night, however, they occasionally returned into 
the cavern, and amused themselves with taking away our 
caps, and playing other similar gambols. On the 4th we 
returned to our abode with a rich booty, and were re- 
ceived with great delight by our companions, who thought 
us lost."* 

On the 6th of May, such of the crew as were able to 
work began to build from the relics of the wreck a vessel, 
which was intended to carry the survivors to Kamtschatka. 
Their number was now reduced to forty-five, thirty having 
died on the island, including the three carpenters ; but a 
Siberian Cossack named Starodubzow, who had for some 
time worked as a shipwright at Ochotzk, superintended the 
building of the new ship. At first they were put to great 
inconvenience from a deficiency of tar ; but by an ingenious 
contrivance it was extracted from the new cordage which 

* We have availed ourselves of Coxe's translation of this passage, as 
pubJiabed in his Russian Discoveries, p. 85, 86 



RETURN TO KAMTSCHATKA. 75 

they had to spare. After being cut and picked, they put it 
into a large copper kettle, having a cover fitting close, with 
a hole in the middle, They then took another vessel with 
a similar cover, which they fixed firm in the ground, and 
upon this set the copper kettle turned upside down, the 
apertures in the lids being placed exactly against each other. 
Part of this machinery was then buried in the earth, and a 
fire kindled round what was above ground, by which means 
the tar of the new cordage melted, and ran into the inferior 
vessel. This contrivance having removed their greatest 
difficulty, by the 10th of August the new vessel was launched, 
and on the 16th, Lieutenant Waxel set sail with the melan- 
choly remnant of his crew ; but, owing to contrary winds, 
they did not make the coast of Kamtschaika till the 25th, 
although from Behring's Island the distance was not more 
than thirty German miles. On the 27th they anchored in 
Awatchka Bay ; and the Cossack Starodubzow, to whose 
efforts in constructing the vessel the preservation of the 
crew was mainly owing, received the rank of sinbojarski, a 
degree of Siberian nobility. Such is an account of the 
celebrated and unfortunate expedition of Commodore Beh- 
ling, of which the results were highly important to geo- 
graphical science, although dearly bought by the death of 
■so many brave men. 

Although Lord Mulgrave had failed in his attempt to dis- 
cover, by a northerly course, a communication between the 
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,* the British government did 
not abandon ail hope ; and in 1776, Captain James Cook, 
who had already established his reputation as the greatest 
of modern navigators, was selected by the Admiralty to con- 
duct another expedition, reversing only the plan, and en- 
deavouring to sail from the Pacific into the Atlantic, instead 
of from the Atlantic into the Pacific. 

In prosecution of this plan, on the 12th of July, 1776, 
Cook sailed from Plymouth Sound in the Resolution, leaving 
instructions for the Discovery, the command of which was 
intrusted to Captain Charles Clerke, to join him at the Cape. 
From that place the two ships proceeded, in a course marked 
by important discoveries, through the southern hemisphere, 
by Van Diemen's Land, New-Zealand, Otaheite, and the 

» Polar Seas and Regions, p. 260-267. 



76 COOK AND clerke's vofage. 

Sandwich Islands. They then steered north-eastward, and 
on the 7th of March, in latitude 44^° north, came in sight 
of the American continent at the coast of New-Albion. 
Owing to unfavourable winds, which forced the ships to the 
south, it was the 29th before Cook anchored in Nootka 
Sound, where he was soon visited by thirty boats of the 
natives, carrying each from three to seven or eight persons, 
both men and women. At first none of the Americans 
would venture within either ship, and from the circumstance 
of their boats remaining at a short distance all night, as if 
on watch, it was evident they regarded the arrival of the 
strangers with much suspicion. A friendly intercourse, 
however, was soon established ; and although theft, par- 
ticularly of any iron utensil, was unscrupulously committed, 
they were pretty fair and honest in their mode of barter. 
" They were," says Cook, " docile, courteous, and good- 
natured ; but quick in resenting what they looked upon as 
an injury, and, like most other passionate people, as soon 
forgetting it. Their stature was rather below the common 
size of Europeans ; and although at first, owing to the 
paint and grease which covered their skins, it was believed 
that they were of a copper complexion, it was afterward 
discovered that they were in reality a white people. They 
were well armed with pikes, some headed with bone and 
many with iron ; besides which they carried bows, slings, 
knives, and a short club, like the patow of the New-Zea- 
landers ; their arrows were barbed at the point, and the inner 
end feathered." A dispute occurred after the arrival of the 
English, between the inhabitants of the northern and south- 
ern coasts of the sound ; but a pacific treaty was concluded, 
and the event celebrated by a species of music, in which 
they bore alternate parts. " Their songs," says Captain 
Burney, who was himself present, " were given in turn, 
the party singing having their pikes erected. When the 
first finished they laid down their pikes, and the other party 
reared theirs. What they sang was composed of few notes, 
and as wild as could have been expected ; yet it was solemn 
and in unison, and, what I thought most extraordinary, they 
"were all well in tune with each other. The words were at 
times given out by one man, as a parish-clerk gives out the 
first line of a psalm."* 

* Burnej's North-eastern Voyages of Discovery, p. 213. 



SURVEY FROM NOOTKA TO NORTON SOUND. 77 

It appeared evident to Captain Cook that previous to 
this the inhabitants had never entertained any direct com- 
munioation with Europeans. " They were not startled," 
says he, " by the report of a musket, till one day, upon en- 
deavouring to prove to us that arrows and spears would not 
penetrate their war-dresses, a gentleman of our company 
shot a musket-ball through one of them folded six times. 
At this they were so much staggered, that their ignorance 
of firearms was plainly seen. This was afterward con- 
firmed when we used them to shoot birds, the manner of 
which confounded them." On the ships leaving Nootka 
Sound, the natives accompanied their farewell with a singu- 
lar exhibition : " When the anchor was heaving up," says 
Burney, " they assembled in their boats, which covered the 
cove, and began a song, in which they flourished the swords, 
saws, hatchets, and other things which they had obtained 
from us. In the midst of this valedictory chorus, one man, 
mounted on a stage of loose boards, which was supported 
by the people in the nearest canoes or boats, danced with a 
wooden mask on, which he occasionally changed, making 
himself resemble sometimes a man, sometimes a bird, and 
sometimes an animal. Of these masks they have great 
variety, and they parted with them willingly, except those 
of the human face ; if they sold any of these, it seemed to 
be with some repugnance, as if they were parting with the 
image of a friend or a relation, and were ashamed to be seen 
so doing."* 

From Nootka Sound Captain Cook made a survey of the 
coast by Mount St. EUas, till he arrived at a cape which 
turned short to the north, to which he gave the name of Cape 
Hinchinbroke ; thence he proceeded to Prince William's 
Sound ; after which he pursued the coast to ihe west, which 
was found to take a southerly direction, as described by 
Behring and Tchirikow. These navigators, however, as 
we have seen, had not made a very particular examination ; 
and although the tenor of Cook's instructions did not permit 
him to devote much time to the exploring rivers or inlets, till 
he reached the latitude of 65°, still that eminent officer 
deemed himself at liberty to complete an accurate survey of 
this hitherto undiscovered coast, from the arm of the sea 

. * Barney's North-eastera Voyages of Discovery, p. 217, 218. 
G2 



?8 COOK CROSSES BEHRINO's STRAIT TO ASIA. 

afterward denominated Cook's Inlet round the great penin 
sula of Alaska, terminating in Cape Oonamak. He thence 
proceeded along the shores of Bristol Bay, till he doubled 
Cape Newenham, from which he steered in a north-easterly 
direction and anchored in Norton Sound. Leaving this the 
ships entered Behring's Strait, and followed the coast to the 
north-west, till they doubled a promontory situated in 65° 
45" north latitude, which they named Prince of Wales' 
Cape, regarding it as the western extremity of all America 
hitherto known. Soon after, in the evening, they discerned 
the coast of Asia, and standing across the strait came to 
anchor in a bay of the Tschuktschi country, near a village 
from which the natives crowded to the shore. Observing 
this, Cook landed with three boats well armed, and was re- 
ceived by the Tschuktschi with cautious courtesy. About 
forty men, armed each with a spontoon, besides bow and 
arrow, stood drawn up on a rising ground close by the village, 
and as the English drew near, three of them came down 
towards the shore, politely taking off their caps and making 
low bows. On seeing some of the English leap from their 
boats they retired, and expressed by signs their desire that 
no more should land ; but when Cook advanced alone, with 
some small presents in his hand, their confidence was re- 
stored, and they exchanged for them two fox-skins and two 
seahorse-teeth. All this time they never laid down their 
•weapons, but held them in constant readiness, except for a 
short time, when four or five persons disarmed themselves 
to give the English a song and a dance ; even then, how- 
ever, they placed them in such a manner that they could 
reach them in an instant, and evidently for greater security 
they desired their audience to sit down during the dance. 
This Asiatic people, although dwelling within fifty miles of 
the American coast, were evidently a different race from the 
inhabitants of the shores of Behring's Strait. All the 
Americans whom the English had seen since their arrival 
on the coast were low of stature, with round chubby faces 
and high cheek-bones. The Tschuktschi, on the contrary, 
had long visages, and were stout and well made. Several 
things which they had with them, and more particularly 
their clothing, showed a degree of ingenuity surpassing 
what one could expect among so northern a people. Their 
jdress consisted o{ a cap, frock, breeches, boots, and gloves, 



RETURN OF THE EXPEDITION. 79 

all made of leather or skins extremely well dressed, some 
with the fur on, some without it, and the quivers which con- 
tained their arrows were made of red leather neatly em- 
broidered, and extremely beautiful.* 

From this bay the ships again stood over to the north- 
east, and continuing their examination of the American 
coast. Cook soon found himself surrounded by the dreary 
features which mark the scenery of the polar latitudes ; a 
dark and gloomy sky, thick showers of snow and hail, and 
immense fields and mountains of ice, covered in some places 
by the huge forms of the walrus or seahorse, which lay in 
herds of many hundreds, huddling like swine one over the 
other. The flesh of these animals, when newly killed, was 
preferred by the crew to their common fare of salt meat, 
but within four-and-twenty hours it became rancid and fishy. 
From a point of land, which was denominated Cape Mul- 
grave, they now explored the coast to the latitude of 70° 
29' , where their progress was arrested by an unbroken wall 
of ice, apparently stretching from continent to continent.! 
At this time the nearest land was about a league distant, 
and the farthest eastern point seen a low headland much 
encumbered with ice, to which Cook gave the name of Icy 
Cape, and which, till the recent discoveries of Captain 
Beechey, constituted the extreme limit of European dis- 
covery in that quarter of the globe. It was now the end of 
August ; and as nothing further could be attempted at that 
season on the American coast, the ships returned to the 
Sandwich Islands, with the intention of resuming in the 
succeeding summer the attempt for the discovery of a com- 
munication between the Pacific and the Atlantic, — an ob- 
ject which their great commander did not live to execute, 
having been killed in an unfortunate scuffle with the natives 
of Owhyee on the 11th of February, 1779. The further 
conduct of the expedition now fell to Clerke and King, and 
an attempt was made to penetrate beyond Icy Cape ; but the 
continued fields of ice rendered it utterly abortive. The ships, 
therefore, having repassed Behring's Strait, came to anchor 
in the Bay of St. Peter and St. Paul in Kamtschatka. Here 
Captain Clerke, who had long been in a declining state, 
died ; upon which, to the great satisfaction of the crew and 

* Cook's Voyages, vol. vi. p. 409, 410, 411. 
t Ibid. p. 415, 417. 



80 MEARES'S FIRST VOYAGE. 

officers of both ships, who were sick of the dreary naviga- 
tion in these inhospitable latitudes, they returned home. 

Subsequent to the voyages of Cook and Gierke, the north- 
west coast of America was visited at different periods by 
Meares, Vancouver, and Kotzebue ; and though the limit of 
discovery was not extended beyond Icy Cape, the shores were 
more minutely examined, and a beneficial commercial inter- 
course established with the natives. Of Captain Meares's 
voyages, the gi;eat object was to establish a trade between 
China and the north-west coast of America. For this pur- 
pose an association of the leading mercantile men in Bengal 
fitted out two vessels, — the Nootka, commanded by Meares 
himself, and the Sea-otter, by Lieutenant Walter Tipping. 
The Sea-otter in the first instance took a cargo of opium 
to Malacca, thence she proceeded to America, and is known 
to have made Prince William's Sound ; but after leaving 
that harbour no accounts of her were ever received, and it 
appears certain that she and her crew perished at sea. The 
fate of Meares in the Nootka was scarcely more tolerable. 
After a tedious and perilous navigation in the China seas, 
they made their way through the straits between Oonamak 
and Oonalaska against a current running seven knots an 
hour, from which they sailed across to America by the 
Schumagin Islands, and anchored under Cape Douglas.* 
Thence they proceeded to Prince William's Sound to winter; 
and their residence here during October, November, and 
December, though dreary and tedious, was not without its 
comforts. The natives were friendly, and brought them 
provisions ; they caught plenty of excellent salmon, and 
the large flocks of ducks and geese afforded constant sport 
to the officers, and a seasonable supply for the table. But 
the horrors of an arctic winter began soon to gather round 
them. The ice closed in upon the ship ; the snow fell so 
thick that all exercise became impossible ; the ducks and 
geese collected into flocks, and passed away to the south- 
ward ; the fish totally deserted the creeks ; and the natives, 
a migratory race, imitating the instinct of these lower 
species, travelled off in a body with their temporary wig- 
wams to a more genial district. To add to these distresses 
the scurvy made its appearance ; while the sun described 

..* Meares's Voyages, vol. i. p. 19. Introductory Voyage. ^ 



MEARES'S FIRST VOYAGE. 81 

weekly a smaller circle, and shed a sickly and melancholy 
light. Even at noon, through an atmosphere obscured by 
perpetual snows, " tremendous mountains forbade almost a 
sight of the sky, and cast their nocturnal shadows over the 
ship in the midst of day." The decks were incapable 
of resisting the intense freezing of the night, and the lower 
part of them was covered an inch thick r/ith a hoar frost 
that had all the appearance of snow, notwithstanding fires 
were kept constantly burning twenty hours out of the twenty- 
four. Between the months of January and May, twenty- 
three men died of the scurvy, and the rest of the crew were 
so disabled as to be incapable of any labour ; but the sun's 
return and the commencement of more genial weather pro- 
duced an instantaneous effect on the health and spirits of 
the crew. The natives returned, and assured the poor 
sufferers that the cold must soon be gone, making them 
understand by signs that the summer would commence 
about the middle of May ; and the sun, which now began 
to make a larger circle over the hills, not only chased away 
the huge and gloomy shadows that, like a funeral-pall, had 
covered the ship, but brought back the fish to the rivers, and 
the migratory birds to the shore ; so that they soon enjoyed 
an ample supply of fresh food. On the 17th of May, a 
general breaking up of the ice took place throughout the 
cove, and the feeling that they were once more in clear 
water, with the prospect of soon leaving a scene of so much 
distress and horror, cheered the minds of the crew with in- 
expressible comfort.* These happy anticipations were soon 
realized by their sailing from Prince of Wales' Sound on 
21st June, and reaching the hospitable cluster of the Sand- 
wich Isles, where such was the eflfect of the genial climate, 
that in ten days' residence every complaint had disappeared. 
On the 2d of September they left the Sandwich Islands, and 
arrived on the 20th October at Macao in China. 

It may easily be imagined, that during so disastrous a 
sojourn on the American shore, little or no progress could 
be made in the survey of the coast, which was rugged ; and 
at no great distance were mountains, covered with thick 
woods for about two-thirds of their ascent, beyond which 
they terminated in immense masses of naked rock. The 

* Meares's Voyages, vol. i. Introductory Voyage, p. 47. 



82 NATIVES OF PRINCE WILLIAM*S SOUND 

black-pine grew in great plenty, and a few black-currant 
bushes were noticed, but no other kind of fruit or vegetable. 
The number of savages seen by Meares did not exceed five 
or six hundred, and these had no fixed place of abode, but 
wandered up and down as fancy or necessity impelled them. 
They were strong and athletic, rather exceeding the common 
stature of Europeans, with prominent cheek-bones, round 
flat faces, eyes small and black, and hair, which they cut 
short round the head, of the same jetty colour. A slit in 
the under lip, parallel to the mouth, and a perforation in 
the septum of the nose, in which was inserted a large quill 
or a piece of bark, gave them a hideous look ; while a sin- 
gular practice of powdering their hair with the down of 
birds, allowing the frostwork and icicles to hang from the 
beard, and painting the neck and face with red ochre, in- 
creased the savage singularity of their appearance. Their 
clothing consisted of a single frock of the sea-otter skin, 
reaching to their knees. When employed in their canoes, 
they used a dress made of the entrails of the whale, which 
covered the head, and was so disposed that it could be tied 
round the hole in which they sat, so as to prevent the water 
from getting into the canoe, while it kept the lower part 
of the body warm and dry. Their hardihood and capacity 
of enduring pain astonished the English, and was remark- 
ably evinced upon an occasion mentioned by Meares : — " In 
the course of the winter," says he, " among other rubbish, 
several broken glass bottles had been thrown out of the ship, 
and one of the natives, who was searching among them, cut 
his foot in a very severe manner. On seeing it bleed, we 
pointed out what had caused the wound, and applied a 
dressing to it, which he was made to understand was the 
remedy we ourselves applied on similar occasions ; but he 
and his companions instantly turned the whole into ridicule, 
and at the same time taking some of the glass, they scar- 
ified their legs and arms in a most cruel and extraordinary 
manner, informing us that nothing of that kind could ever 
hurt them."* 

The disastrous result of this first expedition did not deter 
.either Meares or his liberal employers from hazarding a 
cecond voyage to the same coast, which was attended with 

* Meares*s Voyages, vol. i. lutroductory Voyage, p. 66. 



MEARES'S SECOND VOYAGE. 83 

more important results. The Felice, of 230 tons burden, 
and the Iphigenia, of 300, were fitted out on this adventure ; 
the command being given to Captains Meares and Douglas. 
Both vessels were copper-bottomed and strongly built, and 
their crews consisted of Europeans and Chinese, among 
whom were some excellent smiths, shipwrights, and other 
artisans. The taking the Chinamen aboard was an experi- 
ment. Before this time they had never formed part of the 
crew of an English merchant-ship ; and it is but justice to 
say that they proved hardy, good-humoured, and industrious. 
Two other very interesting passengers were on board of 
Captain Meares's ship, — Teanna, a prince of Atooi, one of 
the Sandwich Isles, who had volunteered to leave his native 
country when Meares visited it during his former expedition ; 
and Comekala, a native of King George's Sound, who had 
at the same time entreated to be carried to China. Of these 
two specimens of savage life Teanna was by far the finest, 
both in moral and in physical quaUties. He was about 
thirty-two years old, near six feet five inches in stature, and 
in strength almost Herculean. His carriage was dignified, 
and, in consequence of the respect paid to his superior rank 
in his own country, possessed an air of distinction, to which 
his familiarity with European manners had not communi- 
cated any stiffness or embarrassment. Comekala, on the 
other hand, though cunning and sagacious, was a stranger 
to the generous qualities which distinguished the prince of 
the Sandwich Isles. He was kind and honest when it suited 
his own interest ; but stole without scruple whatever he 
wished to have and could not procure by fairer means. 
Brass and copper were metals which he might almost be said 
to worship. Copper halfpence, buttons, saucepans, — all 
possessed in his eyes the highest charms. It was evident 
that he coveted the brass buttons of the captain's uniform ; 
and his mode of fixing his eyes on the object of his desire, 
and the pangs of ungratified avarice, as exhibited in the 
contortions of his countenance, proved matter of much 
amusement to the crew. The cause of his insatiable thirst 
for copper became afterward apparent. 

In the mean time Captain Meares found it necessary to 
separate from his consort, whose slow sailing threatened to 
impede his progress ; and after a long and hazardous pas- 
sage, the ship anchored in Friendly Cove in King George's 



84 KING George's sound. — comekala. 

Sound, abreast of the village of Nootka, on the morning of 
the 13th of May. Comekala, who for several days had been 
in a state of high excitation, now enjoyed the genuine de- 
light of once more beholding his native shore ; and when 
his intention of landing was made known, the whole inhab- 
itants poured forth to give him welcome. The dress in 
which he chose to appear for the first time after so long an 
absence was very extraordinary : on a former occasion, 
when visited by Hannapa, a brother chief, he contented 
himself with an ordinary European suit ; but he now, says 
Meares, arrayed himself in all his glory : his scarlet coat 
was decorated with such quantities of brass buttons and 
copper appendages of one kind or other, that they could not 
fail to procure him profound respect from his countrymen, 
and render him an object of unbounded admiration to the 
Nootka damsels. At least half a sheet of copper formed 
his breastplate ; from his ears copper ornaments were sus- 
pended ; and he contrived to hang from his hair, which was 
dressed with a long pig-tail, so many handles of copper 
saucepans, that their weight kept his head in a stiff upright 
position, which very much heightened the oddity of his ap- 
pearance. For several of the ornaments with which he was 
now so proudly decorated Comekala had lived in a state of 
continual hostility with the cook, from whom he purloined 
them ; but their last and principal struggle was for an enor- 
mous spit, which the American prince had seized as a spear, 
to swell the circumstances of that splendour with which he 
was preparing to dazzle the eyes of his countrymen. In 
such a state of accoutrement, and feeling greater delight 
than ever was experienced on the proudest European throne, 
the long-boat rowed Comekala ashore, when a general and 
deafening shout from the crowd assured him of the universal 
joy felt on his return. The whole inhabitants moved to the 
beach, welcomed the traveller on shore, and afterward con- 
ducted him to the king's house, which none but persons of 
rank were permitted to enter, and where a magnificent feast 
of whale blubber and oil was prepared. On the whole, 
Comekala's reception, and the impression made by his ex- 
traordinary costume, evinced his intimate knowledge of the 
character of his countrymen ; for though to the English the 
effect was irresistibly comic, the natives regarded him with 
a mixture of silent awe and wonder, which after a while 



NOOTKA MUSIC. 85 

broke forth into expressions of universal astonishment and 
delight. 

Not long after this exhibition, two Nootka princes, Ma- 
quilla and Callicum, paid a visit to the English. Their little 
squadron, consisting of twelve canoes with eighteen men 
each, moved with stately parade round the ship : the men 
wore dresses of beautiful sea-otter skins, covering them 
from head to heel ; their hair was powdered with the white 
down of birds, and their faces bedaubed with red and black 
ochre, in the form of a shark's jaw and a kind of spiral line, 
which rendered their appearance extremely savage. Eight 
rowers sat on each side, and a single man at the bow ; while 
the chiefs, distinguished by a high cap, pointed at the crown 
and ornamented with a small tuft of feathers, occupied a 
place in the middle. All this was very striking-, but the 
most remarkable accompaniment was the air which they 
chanted, the effect of which is described by Meares as un- 
commonly pleasing. " We listened," says he, " to their song 
with an equal degree of surprise and pleasure. It was 
indeed impossible for any ear susceptible of delight from 
musical sounds, or any mind not insensible to the power of 
melody, to remain unmoved by this solemn unexpected con- 
cert. The chorus was in unison, and strictly correct as to 
time and tune ; nor did a dissonant note escape them. 
Sometimes they would make a sudden transition from the 
high to the low tones, with such melancholy turns in their 
variations, that we could not reconcile to ourselves the man- 
ner in which they acquired or contrived this more than un- 
taught melody of nature. There was also something for 
the eye as well as the ear, and the action that accompanied 
their voices added very much to the impression which the 
chanting made upon us all. Every one beat time with un- 
deviating regularity against the gunwale of the boat with 
their paddles ; and at the end of every verse they pointed 
with extended arms to the north and south, gradually sinking 
their voices in such a solemn manner as to produce an effect 
not often attained by the orchestras of European nations." 
This account of the impressive music of the people of Nootka 
Sound is, the reader may remember, corroborated by Captain 
Burney.* The ceremony, however, did not end with the 

* Supra, p, 76. 

H 



86 HUNTING THE SEA-OTTER. 

song ; but after rowing twice round the ship, rising up eacg 
time as they passed the stern, and vociferating, *' WacushI 
Wacush !" (friends,) they brought their canoes alongside, 
and the two chiefs came on board. Both were handsome 
men, of the middle size, possessing a mild but manly expres- 
sion of countenance. They accepted a present of copper, 
iron, and other articles, with signs of great delight, and 
throwing off their sea-otter garments, laid them gracefully at 
the feet of the English, and stood on the deck quite naked. 
Each of them was presented with a blanket, which they 
threw over their shoulders with marks of high satisfaction, 
and descending into their canoes, were paddled to the shore. 
A brisk trade in furs now commenced, which, though in- 
terrupted occasionally by the petty thefts of the savages, 
was highly fiivourable to the commercial interests of the ex- 
pedition. Skins of the sea-otter, beaver, martin, sable, and 
river-otter, of the ermine, black-fox, gray, white, and red 
wolf, wolverine, marmot, racoon, bear, and mountain-sheep, 
and in addition to all these, of the furred, speckled, and com- 
mon seal, sea-cow, and sea-lion, were all procured, though 
some in greater abundance than others. Of these by far 
the most beautiful and valuable was the skin of the sea-otter. 
The taking of this animal is attended with considerable 
hazard ; but constant practice has taught the natives both 
skill and courage. " When it is determined to hunt the 
sea-otter," says Meares, " two very small canoes are pre- 
pared, in each of which are seated two expert hunters. 
The instruments they employ are bows and arrows, with a 
small harpoon, which differs somewhat from the instrument 
of the same kind used in hunting the whale, the shaft being 
much the same ; but the harpoon itself of greater length, 
and so notched and barbed that when it has once entered 
the tlesh it is almost impossible to extricate it. It is attached 
to the shaft by several fathoms of sufficient strength to drag 
the otter to the boat. The arrows employed are small, and 
pointed with bone formed into a single barb. Thus equipped 
the hunters proceed among the rocks in search of their 
prey. Sometimes they surprise the animal when sleeping 
on his back on the surfiice of the water : and if they 
can approach without waking him, which requires infinite 
caution and skill, he is easily harpooned and dragged to the 
boat, when a fierce battle often ensues between the otter and 



HUNTING THE WHALE. <fT 

'die hunters, who are frequently severely wounded by his 
teeth and claws. The more usual manner of taking him, 
however, is by pursuit, and the chase is sometimes continued 
for hours. As the animal cannot remain long under water, 
he skill is here chiefly exerted to direct the canoes in the 
same line which the otter takes when under water, at which 
time he swims with a celerity that greatly exceeds that of 
his pursuers. The moment he dives, therefore, the canoes 
separate in order to have the better chance of wounding him 
with their arrows at the moment he rises, although it often 
happens that this wary and cunning animal escapes, and 
baffles the utmost skill of his persecutors. Should it happen 
that the otters are overtaken with their young ones, the 
instinct of parental affection comes out in its most deep 
and interesting shape ; all sense of danger and of self-pres- 
ervation is instantly lost, and both male and female defend 
their cubs with the most furious courage, tearing out with 
their teeth the arrows and harpoons fixed in them, and often 
attacking the canoes themselves. On such occasions, how- 
ever, their utmost efforts are unavailing, and they and their 
offspring never fail of yielding to the power of the hunters."* 
The hunting the whale, however, is a still nobler sport ; 
and nothing can exceed the skill and intrepidity with which 
the Americans of Nootka engage in it. When it is deter- 
mined to proceed against this mighty creature, the chief 
prepares himself with great ceremony he is clothed in the 
sea-otter's skin, his body besmeared with oil and painted 
with red ochre ; the canoes selected for the service are of a 
size between those used in war and the ordinary kind, and 
contain eighteen or twenty men, the bravest and most active 
that can be found. When the whale is discovered, the chief 
himself throws the first harpoon ; but all the people in the 
various attendant canoes are armed with the same instru- 
ment, to be employed as occasion may require. As soon as 
the huge fish feels the smart of the first weapon, he dives, 
and carries the shaft with all its bladders along with him ; 
on which the boats follow in his wake, and as he rises con- 
tinue to fix their weapons till he finds it impossible to sink 
from the number of floating buoys attached to his body. 
The whale then drowns, and is towed on shore with great 

* Meares, vol. ii. p. W. 



88 NOOTKA MECHANICAL ARTS. 

triumph and rejoicing.* He is immediately cut up, part 
being dedicated to the feast which concludes the day, and 
the remainder divided among those who shared the dangers 
and glory of the chase. 

The ingenuity of the Nootka savages in many mechanical 
arts was very remarkable. Their manufacture of harpoons, 
lines, fish-hooks, bows and arrows, their skill in tanning and 
preparing furs, their ingenious manner of forging the metals 
procured from the English into various ornaments for their 
wives or favourites, and, above all, their art in constructing 
canoes, astonished the European and Chinese artisans. Of 
the iron received in exchange for furs they made tools ; and it 
was seldom they could be prevailed on to use European 
utensils in preference to their own, with the exception of the 
saw, the utility of which in abridging labour was imme- 
diately perceived and made available. They formed of the 
same metal a species of tool for hollowing out large trees, 
which purpose it served far better than any instrument the 
carpenters of the Felice could give them. In this operation 
a flat stone was employed in place of an anvil, while a round 
one served for a hammer ; and with these rude implements 
they shaped the red-hot iron into a tool resembling a cooper's 
adze, which they fastened to a wooden handle with cords 
made of sinews ; it was then sharpened, and proved admi- 
rably adapted for the purposes for which it was intended.! 

After the English had been for some time in King GeorgeV 
Sound, the Americans began to make use of sails formed of 
mats, in imitation of Captain Meares's ship. Hannapa got 
the sailors to rig one of his war-canoes in the English style, 
of which he was extremely proud, never omitting the cere- 
mony of hoisting his pendant whenever he approached, to 
the great amusement of the crew. Not long after this the 
English were waited upon by Wicananish, a prince of greater 
wealth and power than any they had yet seen, who invited 
them to visit his kingdom, which lay at some distance to the 
southward, that a commercial intercourse might be estab- 
ished for the advantage of both parties. The invitation 
was accepted, and Wicananish himself met the Felice at 
some distance from the shore with a small fleet of canoes ; 
and, coming on board, piloted them into the harbour. They 

* Mearea, vol. ii. p. 52, 55. t ^id- P- 58. 69. 



PALACE OF WICANANISH. 89 

found the capital to be at least three times the size of Nootka. 
The country round was covered with impenetrable woods of 
great extent, in which were trees of enormous size. After 
the king and his chiefs had been entertained on board, the 
English were in return invited to a feast by Wicananish ; 
and it is not easy to conceive a more interesting picture of 
savage life than is given by Meares on this occasion. •' On 
entering the house," says he, " we were absolutely aston- 
ished at the vast area it enclosed. It contained a large 
square, boarded up close on all sides to the height of twenty 
feet, with planks of an uncommon breadth and length. 
Three enormous trees, rudely carved and painted, formed 
the rafters, which were supported at the ends and in the 
middle by gigantic images, carved out of huge blocks of 
timber. The same kind of broad planks covered the whole, 
to keep out the rain ; but they were so placed as to be re- 
movable at pleasure, either to receive the air and light or 
to let out the smoke. In the middle of this spacious room 
were several fires, and beside them large wooden vessels 
filled with fish-soup. Large shoes of whale's flesh lay in a 
state of preparation, to be put into similar machines filled 
with water, into which the women, with a kind of tongs, 
conveyed hot stones from very fierce fires, in order to make 
it boil. Heaps of fish were strewed about ; and in this 
central part of the square, which might properly be called 
the kitchen, stood large seal-skins filled with .jil, from 
whence the guests were served with that delicious beverage. 
The trees that supported the roof were of a size which would 
render the mast of a first rate man-of-war diminutive on a 
comparison with them ; indeed our curiosity as well as our 
astonishment was at its utmost stretch when we considered 
the strength which must have been required to raise these 
enormous beams to their present elevation, and how such 
strength could be commanded by a people wholly unac- 
quainted, as we supposed, with the mechanic powers. The 
door by which we entered this extraordinary fabric was the 
mouth of one of these huge images, which, large as it may, 
from this circumstance, be supposed to have been, was not 
disproportioned to the other features of its colossal visage. 
We ascended by a few steps on the outside ; and after passing 
the portal, descended down the chin into the house, where 
»ve found new matter for wonder in the number of men, 
H3 



90 FEAST GIVEN TO THE ENGLISH. 

women, and children who composed the family of the chief, 
which consisted of at least 800 persons. These were di- 
vided into groups according to their respective ofiices, which 
had distinct places assigned them. The whole of the inte- 
rior of the building was surrounded by a bench, about two 
feet from the ground, on which the various inhabitants sat, 
ate, and slept. The chief appeared at the upper end of the 
room surrounded by natives of rank, on a small raised plat- 
form, round which were placed several large chests, over 
which hung bladders of oil, large slices of whale's flesh, and 
proportionable gobbets of blubber. Festoons of human, 
sculls, arranged with some attention to uniformity, were 
disposed in almost every part where they could be placed ; 
and, however ghastly such ornaments appeared to European 
eyes, they were evidently considered by the courtiers and 
people of Wicananish as a very splendid and appropriate 
decoration of the royal apartment." When the English 
appeared the guests had made a considerable advance in 
their banquet. Before each person was placed a large slice 
of boiled whale, which, with small wooden dishes filled 
with oil and fish-soup, and a muscle-shell instead of a spoon, 
composed the economy of the table. The servants busily 
replenished the dishes as they were emptied, and the women 
picked and opened some bark, which served the purpose of 
towels. The guests despatched their messes with aston- 
ishing rapidity and voracity, and even the children, some 
of them not above three years old, devoured the blubber 
and oil with a rapacity worthy of their fathers. Wica- 
nanish in the mean time did the honours with an air of hos- 
pitable yet dignified courtesy which might have graced a 
more cultivated society. 

At the conclusion of the feast, it was intimated to the 
English that the proper time had arrived to produce their 
presents. Upon this a great variety of articles were dis- 
played ; among which were several blankets and two cop- 
per tea-kettles. On these last, considered to be almost in- 
estimable, the eyes of the whole assembly were instantly 
riveted ; and a guard was immediately mounted, who kept a 
jealous watch over them till curiosity was gratified ; after 
which they were deposited in large chests rudely carved and 
fancifully adorned with human teeth. About fifty men now 
advanced into the middle of the apartment, each holding up 



BRISK TRADE IN FURS. 91 

a sea-otter skin nearly six feet in length, and while they 
remained in that position the prince delivered a speech, 
during which he gave his hand in token of friendship to the 
captain, and informing him that these skins were the return 
he proposed to make for the present he had just received, 
concluded by ordering them to be immediately conveyed on 
board. 

The English now opened a brisk trade, procuring the 
finest furs, while they were supplied with excellent pro- 
visions : salmon, cod, halibut, rock-fish, and herrings were 
brought to them fresh from the water ; and the women and 
children sold them berries, Avild onions, salads, and other 
esculent plants. Wicananish, however, was anxious to 
establish a rigid monopoly, and evinced the utmost jealousy 
lest any neighbouring princes should be admitted to trade 
with the English. None were allowed to go on board 
without his license ; and one unfortunate stranger w^as de- 
tected without a passport, hurried into the woods, and, as 
was strongly suspected, instantly put to death. At last two 
chiefs, who had already entered into some transactions with 
Captain Meares, remonstrated against such illiberality ; and 
Wicananish, rather than go to war, concluded a treaty, 
which had the effect of restoring a good understanding by 
mutual sacrifices. Hanna and Detootche agreed to resign 
to Wicananish all the otter skins in their possession, on 
condition of receiving the two copper tea-kettles already 
mentioned. These last articles, however ludicrous it may 
appear in the eyes of European diplomatists,- formed the 
grand basis of the treaty, and the terms of exchange were 
not arranged without much difficulty. During these pro- 
ceedings the English had little opportunity to examine the 
country ; but every thing which they saw was inviting. An 
archipelago extended from King George's Sound to the har- 
bour of V/icananish, most of the islands being covered with 
wood, with few clear spots. The soil was rich, producing 
berries and fruits in abundance, and the timber of uncom- 
mon size and beauty, consisting chiefly of red oak, large 
cedar, black and white spruce-fir. In their expeditions inta 
the interior they met with frequent groves, where almost 
f very second tree was fit for masts of any dimensions.* 

* Meares's Voyages, vol. i. p. 239. 



92 STRAIT OF JUAN DE FU(JA. 

From Wicananish Captain Meares sailed southward 
along a coast not visited by Cook, of which the chart by 
Maurelle was so inaccurate that it seemed almost certain 
he had never surveyed it in person. During this voyage 
they were visited by a small fleet of canoes, filled with 
people far more savage than those hitherto met with. 
The face of the chief was bedaubed with black ochre, and 
powdered with a glittering sand, which communicated a 
singular fierceness of expression ; while his manners were 
rude, and gave no encouragement to any more intimate 
intercourse. Meares continued his survey of the coast as 
far north as latitude 49^ 37' ; after which he retraced his 
progress, and on reaching the Strait of Juan de Fu9a took 
possession of it, with all the usual ceremonies, in the 
name of the King of Great Britain. The existence of this 
channel, which had been doubted since its discovery in 
1592, was now positively ascertained, and the long-boat 
was despatched up the strait under the command of Mr. 
Duffin, first officer of the Felice. Her crew consisted of 
thirteen sailors, well armed, and provisioned for a month. 
In a week, however, they returned, — with their full com- 
plement indeed, but every one of them wounded. They 
had been attacked by the natives with a ferocity and deter- 
mination which set at naught the usual terror of firearms. 
The assailants used their bows and arrows, clubs, spears, 
stone-bludgeons, and slings, with great skill and courage. 
"The boat itself showed this, being pierced in numerous 
places with the barbed arrows, many of which were still 
sticking in the awning, which, by intercepting the heavy 
showers of these missiles and breaking the fall of the large 
stones discharged from the slings, was the principal means 
of preserving the lives of the crew. 

On returning down the strait, they were met by a canoe 
paddled by two subjects of Wicananish, and after purchas- 
ing some fish were about to bid them farewell, when the 
savages made them aware that they still had another com- 
modity to dispose of, and to their inexpressible horror 
exhibited two human heads still dripping with blood. 
'^^ They held up these detestable objects by the hair," says 
Meares, " with an air of triumph and exultation ; and when 
the crew of the boat discovered signs of disgust and detest- 
ation at so appalling a specjiaqlf, the savages, in a tone 



CANNIBALISM. 93 

'and with looks of extreme satisfaction, informed them that 
they were the heads of two people belonging to Tatootche, 
the enemy of their own king Wicananish, whom they had 
recently slain."* 

I This last occurrence threw a gloom over the spirits of 
the ship's company, and caused them to make more minute 
inquiries into the habits of the savages, which brought to 
light some very extraordinary circumstances. Mild and 
amiable as were the general manners of the inhabitants of 
Nootka Sound, it was discovered by their own confession 
that they not only tortured captives with every refinement 
of cruelty, but feasted on human flesh. Callicum, a chief 
described by Meares as a model of kindness and even of 
deUcacy in his intercourse with the English, acknowledged 
that he slept nightly on a pillow filled with human sculls, 
which he often exhibited as trophies of his valour. Ma- 
quilla betrayed his cannibal propensities in a manner still 
more decided : " It so happened that the chief, in ascend- 
ing the side of the ship, by some untoward accident received 
a hurt in the leg. Orders were immediately given to the 
surgeon to attend, and when he was about to apply a 
plaster to the wound, Maquilla absolutely refused to submit, 
but sucked himself the blood which freely flowed from it ; 
and when we expressed our astonishment and disgust at 
such conduct, he replied by licking his lips, patting his 
belly, and exclaiming, ' Cloosh, cloosh,' or ' Good, good !* 
Nor did he now hesitate to confess that he ate human 
flesh, and to express the delight he took in banqueting 
upon his fellow-creatures ; not only avowing the practice, 
but informing the crew, as they stood shuddering at the 
story, that not long before this the ceremony of killing and 
eating a slave had taken place at Friendly Cove."t This 
acknowledgment was confirmed by Callicum and Hannapa, 
who, protesting they had never tasted the smallest bit of 
human flesh themselves, described Maquilla as peculiarly 
fond of it, and in the practice of killing a slave once a 
month to gratify his unnatural appetite. Perhaps there 
might be some exaggeration in this ; but the ghastly orna- 
ments of Wicananish's dining-room, the extraordinary 
pillow of Callicum, the exposure of men's heads and limbs 

* Meares's Voyages, vol. i. p. 289. t li^id. vol. ii. p. 49. 



94 STRANGE TRADITIONS OF THE NATIVES. 

for sale, and the admission of the chief himself, sufficiently 
prove the existence of this atrocious custom, whatevel 
might be the extent to which it was carried. 

For a long time the English thought the inhabitants had 
no religious belief whatever. To the huge misshapen 
images seen in their houses they addressed no homage ; 
they had neither priests nor temples, nor did they offer any 
sacrifices ; but an accidental circumstance led to the dis- 
covery that, though devoid of all superstitious observances, 
and wholly ignorant of the true God, they were not with- 
out a certain species of mythology, including' the belief of 
an existence after death. " This discovery," says Meares, 
*' arose from our inquiries on a very diiferent subject : 
On expressing our wish to be informed by what means 
they became acquainted with copper, and why it was such 
a peculiar object of their admiration, a son of Hannapa, 
one of the Nootkan chiefs, a youth of uncommon sagacity, 
informed us of all he knew on the subject ; and we found, 
to our surprise, that his story involved a little sketch of 
their religion." When words were wanting he supplied 
the deficiency by those expressive actions which nature or 
necessity seems to communicate to people whose language 
is imperfect ; and the young Nootkan conveyed his ideas 
by signs so skilfully as to render them perfectly intelligible. 
He related his story in the following manner : — " He first 
placed a certain number of sticks on the ground, at small 
distances from each other, to which he gave separate names. 
Thus, he called the first his father, and the next his grand- 
father : he then took what remained and threw them all 
into confusion together, as much as to say that they were 
the general heap of his ancestors, whom he could not indi- 
vidually reckon. He then, pointing to this bundle, said, 
when they lived an old man entered the sound in a copper 
canoe, with copper paddles, and every thing else in his 
possession of the same metal ; that he paddled along the 
shore, on which all the people were assembled to contem- 
plate so strange a sight, and that, having thrown one of 
his copper paddles on shore, he himself landed. The ex- 
traordinary stranger then told the natives that he came 
from the sky, to which the boy pointed with his hand ; 
that their country would one day be destroyed, when they 
would all be killed, and rise again to live in the place from 



SPECULATIONS ON A NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. 95 

whence he came. Our young interpreter explained this 
circumstance of his narrative by lying down as if he were 
dead, and then, rising up suddenly, he imitated the action 
as if he w^ere soaring through the air. He continued to 
inform us that the people killed the old man and took his 
canoe, from which event they derived their fondness for 
copper, and he added that the images in their houses were 
intended to represent the form, and perpetuate the mission, 
of this supernatural person who came from the sky."* 

As the oI)jects of this voyage were principally of a com- 
mercial nature. Captain Meares had better opportunities 
to observe the character of the natives than to explore the 
coast or the interior of the country. The range of his 
navigation, extending only from Nootka Sound to the 
latitude of 49° 37' north, disclosed no regular continuity 
of land, but in every direction large islands, divided by 
deep sounds and channels. The time which this intelli- 
gent seaman could spare was not enough to complete the 
survey ; but, judging from what he did see, he was led to 
the belief that the entire space from St. George's Sound to 
Hudson's Bay and Davis's Strait, instead of a continent, 
was occupied by an immense archipelago, through which 
might reach a passage from the Pacific into the Atlantic 
Ocean. " The channels of this archipelago," says he, in 
his memoir on the probable existence of a north-west 
passage, " were found to be wide and capacious, with near 
two hundred fathoms' depth of water, and huge promon- 
tories stretching out into the sea, where whales and sea- 
otters were seen in an incredible abundance. In some of 
these channels there are islands of ice, which we may ven- 
ture to say could never have been formed on the western 
side of America, which possesses a mild and moderate 
climate ; so that their existence cannot be reconciled to 
any other idea than that they received their formation in 
the eastern seas, and have been drifted by tides and cur- 
rents through the passage for whose existence we are 
contending, "t 

To determine this great question, and complete an accu- 
rate survey of the north-west coast of America, Captain 
Vancouver, an excellent officer, who had received his pro- 

* Moares's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 70, 71. f Ibid. vol. ii. p. 242. 



96 VOYAGES OF VANCOUVER AND KOTZEBUE. 

fessional education under Cook, was despatched in 1790 
and, commencing his voyage at Cape Mendocino, in lati- 
tude 41°, he sailed northward two hundred and nineteen 
leagues to the Strait of Juan de FuQa, never losing sight 
of the surf which dashed against the shore, taking once or 
twice every day the meridional altitude, and minutely 
noting the position of the most conspicuous points. The 
whole coast presented an impenetrable barrier against 
approach from the sea, and no opening was found to afford 
his vessels the smallest shelter. He then explored the 
Strait of Juan de Fuga ; and having satisfied himself that 
no passage across America was to be discovered there, 
devoted his time to the survey of the labyrinth of islands, 
sounds, and inlets between 50° and 60° of latitude. After 
a series of patient and scientific observations every way 
worthy of the school in which he had been bred, he ascer- 
tained the grand fact that the coast was throughout con- 
tinuous, and thus dispelled all hope of a north-west passage 
in this quarter. It was his fate to encounter not a little 
unreasonable skepticism when the result was made public ; 
and, like many other travellers and navigators, he found- 
too much reason to complain of those lazy closet-philoso- 
phers who refuse to admit any testimony which happens 
to contradict their own preconceived theories. Time, how- 
ever, has done him justice, and fully confirmed the accu- 
racy of his report. 

After the disastrous result of the expedition of Behring, 
more than eighty years elapsed before Russia thought proper 
to pursue the career of discovery on the extreme coasts of 
North-western America. At length Count Romanzoff, a 
scientific and patriotic nobleman, determined to despatch 
Lieutenant Kotzebue on a voyage to the straits which bear 
the name of that great mariner. His equipment consisted 
of a single vessel, the Rurick, one hundred tons burden, 
with twenty-two sailors, a surgeon, and a botanist. Having 
doubled Cape Horn, he arrived on the I9th June, 1816, at 
Awatscha. Continuing his course, he passed the boundary 
explored by Behring, and on the 1st of August descried on 
his right, in latitude 68°, a broad opening which he trusted 
would prove the long-sought-for passage. Having entered, 
he landed on the beach, ascended a neighbouring hill, and 
saw nothing but water as far as the eye could reach. Full 



COLONIZATION OF CANADA. 97 

of ardent expectation he employed a fortnight in examining 
this sound, making a complete circuit of its shores. No 
outlet, however, was discovered, except one, which it ap- 
peared almost certain communicated with Norton Sound, 
and Kotzebue resumed his voyage, which, however, was 
attended with no new or important results. To this arm 
of the sea, the discovery of which forms the principal fea- 
ture in his enterprise, he has very properly communicated 
his name. 

With Kotzebue terminates our account of the progress 
of discovery upon the north-western shores of America ; 
for an outline of the survey made by Captain Beechey be- 
longs to a future portion of this disquisition. It is a pleas- 
ing reflection, that almost exclusively to the British navy 
belongs the hard-earned praise of having explored nearly 
the whole of this coast, with an accuracy which leaves 
nothing to be desired by the most scientific navigator. 



CHAPTER III. 

Hearne and Sir Alexander Mackenzie. 

Colonization of Canada— French Fur-trade— Rise of Hudson's Bay 
Company — Hearne's Three Journeys — North-west Fur Company — 
First Journey of Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789— His Second Ex- 
pedition in 1792. 

Having completed a brief sketch of the progress of dis- 
covery along the wide extent of the eastern and western 
shores of North America, from the first expedition of Cabot 
to the latest attempts of Kotzebue, two important subjects 
present themselves, — the rise of the fur-trade, and the great 
discoveries which were achieved by British subjects con- 
nected with this branch of commercial enterprise. The 
expedition of Cartier conferred on the French that title to 
the countries round the St. Lawrence which results from 
priority of discovery ; and other circumstances combined 
to direct their eflforts chiefly to the colonization of the more 
northern tracts of America. Among these causes may be 



98 SIEUR DE LA ROCHE. 

reckoned the disastrous failure of their attempt to eKablish 
a settlement in Florida, the great power of the Spaniards 
in that quarter, and the preoccupation of the middle regions 
of the continent by the English. In 1598, the Sieur de la 
Roche, a Breton gentleman of ancient family, obtained from 
Henry IV. a patent, equally unHmited with that granted by 
Elizabeth to Gilbert and Raleigh. He was nominated 
lieutenant-general of Canada, Hochelaga, Newfoundland, 
Labrador, and of the countries lying on the river of the 
great Bay of Norimbega (meaning the St. Lawrence), and 
the supreme command, both civil and military,- was concen- 
trated in his single person. His preparations were singularly 
disproportionate to those high-sounding titles, and the whole 
expedition was unfortunate. La Roche, with a small 
squadron, and crews consisting principally of convicted 
felons, landed on Sable Island, near the coast of Nova 
Scotia. From this barren spot, ill adapted for a settlement, 
he reached the opposite shore, which he surveyed ; and 
having intrusted the temporary command of the colony to 
an inferior officer, he returned to France to procure ad- 
ditional supplies. On arriving in Brittany, a dispute arose 
between him and the Duke de Mercceur, a nobleman enjoy- 
ing the confidence of the French monarch, by whose in- 
fluence the royal favour was wholly withdrawn from La 
Roche. That adventurer, deprived of all means of prose- 
cuting his enterprise in the New World, soon after died of 
a broken heart. 

Meantime the colony on Sable Island were exposed to 
famine and disease, and totally neglected by the king, amid 
the occupation and excitement of his vast political schemes. 
Their existence was at length accidentally recalled to the 
mind of Henry, who in deep remorse for his forgetfulness 
despatched a vessel, which on its arrival found only twelve 
survivors. They had formed a hovel of the planks of a 
shipwrecked Spanish vessel, supported themselves by fish- 
ing, and replaced their worn-out European garments with 
the skins of the sea-wolf. On their return to France, the 
monarch was greatly moved by the account of their suffer- 
ings, corroborated as it was by their emaciated and haggard 
aspect, matted hair, beards which almost swept the ground, 
and singular dress. He hastened to compensate for his 



CHAITVIN AND PONTGRAVE CHAMPLAIN. 99 

neglect, by granting to such as were felons a free pardon, 
and presenting to each a sum of fifty crowns.* 

These disasters were followed soon after by an attempt 
of Chauvin and Pontgrave, two fur-merchants, to establish 
a colony at Tadoussack, on the mouth of the Saguenay, 
which proved abortive, and gave place to an expedition on a 
more enlarged scale, planned and conducted by De Monts, 
a gentleman of Saintonge, whose squadron consisted of 
forty vessels. His first settlement was on the Island of St. 
Croix, from which he removed to Port Royal, now known 
by the name of Annapolis, where he appears to have 
abandoned his more pacific designs for the superior excitation 
and profits of piracy. The complaints of the merchants 
engaged in the Newfoundland fishery terminated in the re- 
call and disgrace of De Monts ; but Champlain, on whom 
the command devolved, showed himself every way worthy 
of the trust. From Tadoussack he removed the principal 
settlement to Quebec, where he built and fortified a town, 
reduced the surrounding territory into cultivation, and be- 
came the founder of the government of Canada, or New- 
France. Leaving his infant settlement, he next determined 
to penetrate into the interior ; and his emotions of wonder 
and astonishment may be easily conceived, when, ascending 
the St. Lawrence, the majestic forests of Canada first met 
his eye, encircling in their bosom the greatest lakes known 
to exist in the world. Surveying first the southern bank of 
the river, and of the lakes Ontario and Erie, he found that 
he had reached the very cradle of savage life, surrounded 
by nations whose manners, occupations, and superstitions 
were as new as they were bold and terrific. 

To pursue the discoveries of the French into the interior 
of North America does not properly fall within the Umits 
of this work ; and it is suflftcient at present to observe, that 
after a long and sanguinary struggle between the armies of 
France and England, in the war which broke out in 1756, 
Canada was at last subdued by the English, and the pos- 
session of the province confirmed to Great Britain by the 
treaty of 1763. During the war between the United States 
and the mother country. Upper Canada once more became 
the theatre of an obstinate contest, which concluded, ho.w- 

* Histoire G6n6ral des Voyages, vol. xiv. p. 589, 591. 



100 FRENCH FUR-TRADE. 

ever, unfavourably for the American troops ; and the country 
has since remained an integral part of the British dominions. 
Under the French the fur-trade, notwithstanding the re- 
strictions with which commerce was oppressed, was carried 
to a great height and embraced an immense extent of 
country. It was conducted by a set of hardy adventurers, 
who joined the savages in their hunting-parties, and thus 
collected large cargoes of furs with which they supplied the 
merchants. Their distant inland expeditions sometimes 
occupied twelve or even eighteen months ; and during this 
period their uninterrupted familiarity with the natives al- 
most transformed them into as wild and barbarous a con- 
dition as that of the tribes with whom they associated. " It 
requires less time," says Sir Alexander Mackenzie, " for a 
civilized people to deviate into the manners and customs of 
savage life, than for savages to rise into a state of civiliza- 
tion. Such was the event with those who thus accompanied 
the natives on their hunting and trading 'excursions ; for 
they became so attached to the Indian mode of life, that 
they lost all relish for their former habits and native homes. 
Hence they derived the title of Coureurs de Bois, became a 
kind of pedlars, and were extremely useful to the merchants 
engaged in the fur-trade, who gave them the necessary credit 
to proceed on their commercial undertakmgs. Three oy 
four of these people would join their stock, put their 
property into a birch-bark canoe which they worked them- 
selves, and would then either accompany the natives in their 
excursions, or penetrate at once into the country. At 
length these voyages extended to twelve or fifteen months, 
when they returned with rich cargoes of furs, and followed 
by great numbers of the natives. During the short time 
requisite to settle their accounts with the merchants and 
procure fresh credit, they generally contrived to squander 
away all their gains, when they returned to renew their 
favourite mode of life, their views being answered and their 
labour sufficiently rewarded by indulging themselves in ex- 
travagance and dissipation during the short space of one 
month in twelve or fifteen. This indifference about amassing 
property, and the pleasure of living free from all restraint, 
soon brought on a licentiousness of manners which could 
not long escape the vigilant observation of the missionaries, 
who had much reason to complain of their being a disgrace 



COUREURS DE BOIS — GROSSELIEZ. 101 

to the Christian religion, by not only swerving from its 
duties themselves, but bringing it into disrepute with those 
of the natives who had become converts to it, and conse- 
quently obstructing the great object to which these pious 
men had devoted their lives. They therefore exerted their 
influence to procure the suppression of these people ; and 
accordingly no one was allowed to go up the country to 
traffic with the Indians without a license from the French 
government."*" This change of system was not at first 
attended with the expected benefits ; for the licenses were 
sold in most instances to retired oflficers or their widows, 
who again disposed of them to the fur-merchants, and they 
of necessity recalled to their service the coureurs de bois 
as their agents : thus matters assumed, though by a some- 
what more circuitous process, the same aspect as before. 
At last military posts were established at the confluence of 
the great lakes, which repressed the excesses of the wood- 
runners, and afforded protection to the trade ; while under 
this new system, a body of respectable men, usually re- 
tired officers, introduced order and regularity in the traffic 
with the natives, co-operated with the efforts of the mission- 
aries, and extended their intercourse with the various tribes 
to the distance of two thousand five hundred miles, from 
the most civilized portion of the colony to the banks of the 
Saskatchewine river in 53° north latitude, and longitude 
102° west.t Of these trading commanders two individuals 
attempted to penetrate to the Pacific Ocean, but appear to 
have been unsuccessful. 

The discoveries of the English in Hudson's Bay, and the 
latest attempts of Fox and James to reach the Pacific 
through some of its unexplored channels, have been suf- 
ficiently enlarged upon in a former volume ;J but though 
unsuccessful in their great design, the accounts brought 
home regarding the rich furs of these extreme northern shores 
excited the attention ofGrosseliez, an enterprising individual, 
who undertook a voyage to survey the country, and laid 
before the French government a proposal for a commercial 

* Sir Alexander Mackenzie's History of the Fur-trade, prefixed to his 
Voyages, p. 1-3. 
t Ibid. p. 6. 
i Polar Seas and Regions, chap. vi. 



102 Hudson's bay company. 

settlement upon the coast. The minister, however, re- 
jected it as visionary ; and Grosseliez, having obtained an 
introduction to Mr. Montagu, the English resident at Paris, 
was introduced to Prince Rupert, who, struck by the prob' 
able advantages of the project, eagerly patronised it. By 
his interest with the English king he obtained the grant of 
a ship commanded by Captain Zachariah Gillam, who sailed 
with Grosseliez in 1668, and penetrating to the top of 
James's Bay, erected Fort Charles on the bank of the Rupert 
River. In the succeeding year Prince Rupert, with seven- 
teen other persons, were incorporated into a company, and 
obtained an exclusive right to establish settlements and carry 
on trade in Hudson's Bay. Their charter recites, that 
those adventurers having at their own great cost undertaken 
an expedition to Hudson's Bay, in order to discover a new 
passage into the South Sea, and to find a trade for furs, 
minerals, and other commodities, and having made such 
discoveries as encouraged them to proceed in their design, 
his majesty granted to them and their heirs, under the 
name of " The Governor and Company of Adventurers 
trading into Hudson's Bay," the power of holding and 
alienating lands, and the sole right of trade in Hudson's 
Strait, and with the territories upon the coasts of the same. 
They were authorized to fit out ships of war, to erect forts, 
make reprisals, and send home all English subjects entering 
the bay without their license, and to declare war and make 
peace with any prince or people not Christian.* 

Instituted with such ample powers, and at first placed 
under the management of enlightened men, this company 
soon arrived at considerable prosperity. They have, indeed, 
been severely censured as exhibiting little zeal to promote 
discovery, and for uniformly opposing every attempt on the 
part of their servants to solve the long-agitated question of 
a north-west passage. There appears to have been much 
personal pique in these accusations ; and the expedition of 
Knight, in 1721, fitted out on the most liberal scale at the 
company's expense, and the tenor of their original instruc- 
tions to their governor, certainly prove that they were not 
enemies to the cause of discovery ; while the failure of the 

* Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, vol. ii. p. 555, 556. 



HEARNE. 103 

voyages of Middleton in 1742, and of Captains Moore and 
Smith in 1746, must at length have convinced the bitterest 
opponents of the company, that if they had not discovered 
the long-expected passage in some of the straits leading 
into Hudson's Bay, it was for the very sufficient reason that 
such did not exist. But the most remarkable refutation of 
these allegations is to be found in the important and inter- 
esting journey of Hearne, from Prince of Wales' Fort to 
the Northern Ocean, brought to a successful termination in 
1772, which, in its origin and progress, merits our particular 
attention. 

The native Indians, who range over rather than inhabit 
the large tract of country north of Churchill River, having 
repeatedly brought specimens of copper ore to the com- 
pany's factory, it was plausibly conjectured that thesie had 
been found not far from the British settlements ; and as 
the savages affirmed that the mines were not very distant 
from a large river, it was imagined, most erroneously, as 
was proved by the result, that this stream must empty 
itself into Hudson's Bay. In 1768, the Indians who came 
to trade at Prince of Wales' Fort brought further accounts 
of this river, exhibiting at the same time samples of copper, 
which they affirmed to be the produce of a mine in its 
vicinity. The governor now resolved to despatch an intel- 
ligent person across the continent to obtain more precise 
information. Samuel Hearne was chosen for this service, 
a man of great hardihood and sagacity, bred in the employ- 
ment of the company, and who, without pretensions to 
high scientific attainments, possessed sufficient knowledge 
to enable him to construct a chart of the country through 
which he travelled. His instructions directed him to pro- 
ceed to the borders of the country of the Athabasca Indians, 
where it was expected he would meet with a river repre- 
sented by the Indians to abound with copper ore, and to 
be so far to the north that in the middle of summer the 
sun did not set. It was called by the natives Neetha-san- 
san Dazey, or the Far-off Metal River ; and Mr. Hearne 
was directed to explore its course to the mouth, where he 
was to determine the latitude and longitude, to ascertain 
whether it was navigable, and to judge of the practica- 
bility of a settlement. He was enjoined also to examine 
the mines alleged to exist in that district, the nature of the 



104 hearne's second journey: 

soil and its productions, and to make every inquiry and 
observation towards discovering the north-west passage.* 

On the 6th of November, 1769, he set out from Prince of 
Wales' Fort, Hudson's Bay, upon this perilous journey. 
He was accompanied by two Englishmen only, — Ilbester 
a sailor, and Merriman, a landsman ; by two of the Home- 
guard Southern Indians, — a name given to those natives 
residing as servants on the company's plantation, and em- 
ployed in hunting ; and by eight Northern Indians, under 
the command of Captain Chawchinahaw and Lieutenant 
Nabyah. He was provided with ammunition for two years, 
some necessary iron implements, a few knives, tobacco, 
and other useful articles. As to his personal outfit, his 
stock consisted simply of the shirt and clothes he wore, 
one spare coat, a pair of drawers, as much cloth as would 
make two or three pairs of Indian stockings, and a blanket 
for his bed. " The nature of travelling long journeys," he 
observes, "in these countries will not admit of carrying 
even the most common article of clothing ; so that the 
traveller is obliged to depend on the district he traverses 
for his dress as well as his sustenance." The baseness 
and treachery of the Indians, however, soon put a period 
to the first journey, and the desertion of Chawchinahaw 
with his whole escort rendered it absolutely necessary for 
the little party to make the best of their way back to the 
fort, where they arrived on the 8th of December, after 
penetrating only two hundred miles into the interior. 

It was now determined to resume the expedition with 
greater precautions against failure. The Indian women 
who accompanied their husbands in the first journey were 
leh behind, as were the two Englishmen, who had been of 
little service ; and instead of the treacherous Chawchina- 
haw, Hearne selected an Indian named Connequeesee, 
who affirmed he was acquainted with the country, having 
once been near the river, the discovery of which formed 
one great object of the journey. Attended by this man, 
along with three Northern Indians and two of the Home- 
guard natives, the traveller once more set out, on the 23d 
February, while the snow was so deep on the top of tha 
icamparts of the fort that few of the cannon could be seen. 

* Hearne's Journey, Introduction, p. 40, 



HIS SEVERE SUFFERINGS. 105 

After undergoing the severest extremities from hunger and 
fatigue, Mr. Hearne reached in August the river Doobaunt, 
in latitude 63*^ 10' north. The progress thus far, however, 
had been painful beyond measure, ov^fing to the difficulty 
of pushing forward through a wild unexplored country, 
intersected with rivers, lakes, and woods, at the outset 
thickly covered with snow ; and on the approach of the 
warmer months so flooded and marshy as to render trav- 
elling on foot inexpressibly fatiguing. To add to this, the 
voracity, improvidence, and indolence of the Indians sub- 
jected the party to repeated distress. If from fishing or 
hunting a larger supply than usual was procured, instead 
of using it with moderation, and laying up a store for 
future necessities, all was devoured by the savages, who, 
like the boa after he has gorged his prey, coiled them- 
selves up, and remained in a state of sleepy torpor till the 
call of hunger again roused them to activity. 

At first the party subsisted without difficulty on the fish 
which abounded in the lakes and rivers ; but in the begin- 
ning of April they entirely disappeared ; and as the " goose 
season," or period when the geese, swans, ducks, and other 
migratory birds resort to these latitudes was yet distant, 
they began to suffer grievously from want of provisions. 
Occasionally they were relieved by killing a few deer or 
musk-oxen ; but the ground and the brushwood were so 
saturated with moisture from the melting of the snow, that 
to kindle a fire was impossible ; with their clothes drenched 
in rain, and their spirits depressed, they were compelled to 
eat their meat raw, — a necessity grievous at all times, but 
in the case of the flesh of the musk-ox, which is rank, 
tough, and strongly impregnated with the sickeninop sub- 
stance from which it derives its name, peculiarly repulsive 
and unwholesome.* 

The simple and modest manner in which these severe 
sufferings are described by Hearne is peculiarly striking. 
*' To record," says he, " in detail each day's fare since the 
commencement of this journey would be little more than a 
dull repetition of the same occurrences. A sufficient idea 
of it may be given in a few words, by observing, that it 
may justly be said to have been either all feasting or all 

* Hearne's Journey, p, 31, 



106 CATHAWHACHAGA. 

famine ; sometimes we had too much, seldom just enoug-h, 
frequently too little, and often none at all. It will be only 
necessary to say, that we fasted many times two whole 
days and nights, twice upwards of three days, and once, 
while at Shenanhee, near seven days, during which we 
tasted not a mouthful of any thing, except a few cran- 
berries, water, scraps of old leather, and burnt bones." 
On these pressing occasions Hearne often saw the Indians 
examine their wardrobe, which consisted chiefly of skin 
clothing, considering attentively what part could best be 
spared, when sometimes a piece of half-rotten deer-skin, 
and at others a pair of old shoes, would be sacrificed to 
alleviate extreme hunger. "None of our natural wants," 
ne observes, " if we except thirst, are so distressing or 
hard to endure as hunger, and in wandering situations Uke 
that which I now experienced, the hardship is greatly 
aggravated by the uncertainty with regard to its duration, 
and the means most proper to be used to remove it, as well 
as by the labour and fatigue we must necessarily undergo 
for that purpose, and the disappointments which too fre- 
quently frustrated our best-concerted plans and most 
strenuous exertions. It not only enfeebles the body, but 
depresses the spirits, ii. -jpite of every effort to prevent it. 
Besides which, for want of action, the stomach so far loses 
its digestive powers, that, after long fasting, it resumes its 
office with pain and reluctance. During this journey I 
have too frequently experienced the dreadful effects of this 
calamity, and more than once been reduced to so low a 
state by hunger and fatigue, that when Providence threw 
auv thing in my way, my stomach has been scarcely able 
tx: retain more than two or three ounces without producing 
ine most oppressive pain."* 

On the 30th June, they arrived at a small river called 
Cathawhachaga, which empties itself into White Snow 
Lake, in 64° north latitude. Here, as the guide declared 
they could not that summer reach the Coppermine River, 
Hearne determined to pass the winter, with the intention 
of pushing on to his destination in 1771. They accord- 
ingly forsook their northward route, and taking a westerly 
course were joined in a few days by many troops of wan- 

* Kearne's Journey, p. 33. 



RETURN FROM CATHAWHACHAGA. 107 

ilering Indians ; so that by the 30th July they mustered 
about seventy tents, containing nearly six hundred souls, 
and on moving in the morning the whole ground seemed 
alive with men, women, children, and dogs. The deer 
were so plenty that, though lately five or six individuals 
had almost perished from hunger, this numerous body sup- 
ported themselves with great ease, and often killed their 
game for the skins, leaving the carcass to be devoured by. 
the foxes.* In this manner, engaged alternately in hunt- 
ing and fishing, making observations on the country, and 
studying the extraordinary manners of his associates, the 
English traveller was preparing for his winter sojourn, 
when an accident rendered his quadrant useless, and com- 
pelled him, on 13th August, to set out on his return to the 
fort. 

The hardships he endured on his route homeward were 
various and accumulated. He was plundered by the north- 
ern Indians, who, adding insult to injury, entered his tent, 
smoked a pipe which they filled with the white man's 
tobacco, asked to see his luggage, and without waiting for 
an answer turned the bag inside out, and spread every 
article on the ground. The work of appropriation was 
equally rapid, and the empty bag was flung to the owner ; 
but a fit of compunction seizing them, they restored a knife, 
an awl, and a needle. On begging hard for his razors, 
they consented to give up one, and added enough of soap 
to shave him during the remainder of his journey, making 
him understand that the surrender of these articles called 
for his warmest gratitude. 

As the cold weather approached, the party thus plun- 
dered suflTered grievously from want of that warm deer- 
skin clothing used by the Indians at this season. A dress 
of this kind is rather costly, requiring the prime parts of 
from eight to eleven skins. These Hearne at last managed 
to collect ; but as the Indian women alone could prepare 
them, he was compelled to carry this load along with him 
from day to day, earnestly begging the natives at each suc- 
cessive resting-place to permit their wives to dress his 
skins. He met, however, with a surly and uniform refusal ; 
and at last, after bearing the burden for several weeks, was 

* Hearne's Journej^, p. 40, 



108 matonabbee's advice. 

forced to throw it off, and sustain the cold as he best could, 
without either skin-clothing or snow-shoes. When, con- 
tinuing their course in this forlorn condition to the south- 
east, they met with Captain Matonabbee, a powerful and 
intelligent chief, who was then on his way to Prince of 
Wales' Fort with furs and other articles of trade. It was 
this person who brought the accounts of the Coppermine 
River, which induced the company to fit out the expedition, 
and he was naturally interested in its success. He evinced 
the utmost activity in relieving their wants, furnished them 
with a warm suit of otter and otlier skins, and, not being 
able to provide them with snow-shoes, directed them to a 
small range of woods, where they found materials for both 
shoes and sledges. Matonabbee then treated the party to 
a feast, and took occasion in his conversation with Hearne 
to explain the causes of his failure, and to offer his assist- 
ance in a third expedition. He attributed all their misfor- 
tunes to the misconduct of the guide, and to their having 
no women with them. " In an expedition of this kind," 
said he, " when all the men are so heavily laden that they 
can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance, in 
case they meet with success in hunting, who is to carry 
the produce of their labour 1 Women were made for 
labour ; one of them can carry or haul as much as two men 
can do. They also pitch our tents, make and mend our 
clothing, keep us warm at night ; and in fact there is no 
such thing as travelUng any considerable distance, or for 
any length of time, in this country, without them ; and yet, 
though they do every thing, they are maintained at a 
trifling expense ; for, as they always act the cook, the very 
licking of their fingers in scarce times is sufficient for their 
subsistence."* Assisted by this friendly chief, the Eng- 
lish traveller again set forward, and after experiencing an 
intense degree of cold, by which the fovourite dog in his 
sledge was frozen to death, he reached the fort on 25th 
November, having been absent eight months and twenty- 
two days. Matonabbee arrived a few days after. 

Though twice compelled to return, Hearne, whose spirit 
was not to be overcome by fatigue or disappointment, of- 
fered his services to proceed on a third journey, which was 

* Hearne's Journey, p. 55. 



109 

ultimately crowned with success. For this he engaged 
Matonabbee as guide, and declined taking any Home-guard 
Indians. Their place, however, was occupied, according to 
the principles already laid down, by seven of Matonabbee's 
wives, who, by the assistance they afforded, did no dispar- 
agement to the singular picture of female activity which he 
had drawn. They set out on the 7th of December, and 
notwithstanding frequent privations, want of food, and in- 
tense cold, their sufferings were not so aggravated as in the 
former attempts. The country through which they passed 
towards the west was wild and barren, occasionally covered 
with thick shrubby woods of stunted pine and dwarf juniper, 
studded with frequent lakes and swamps, whose sides were 
fringed with willows. Through this ground they travelled 
in high spirits, but on rather short commons, owing to the 
-scarcity of deer, and the improvidence of the Indians, who 
consumed every thing in the store during the first days of 
their march, trusting to find a stock of provisions which 
they had hid in a certain spot on their way to the fort. On 
reaching the place, however, they discovered that the pro- 
visions had been carried off; and the equanimity with which 
the Indians bore the disappointment, and travelled forward 
under the conjoined miseries of hunger and fatigue, was 
very striking. At last they succeeded in killuig a few deer, 
and halted to take some refreshment. For a whole day they 
never ceased eating, and an additional repast on two large 
buck-deer, which they killed a few days after, at last fairly 
overcame Captain Matonabbee, who, after devouring at one 
sitting as much as would have satisfied six moderate men, 
seemed somewhat unreasonably astonished to find himself 
indisposed. 

Having recovered from the effects of this surfeit, they 
proceeded from Island Lake towards the main branch of the 
Cathawhachaga, which they crossed, and directing their 
course by Partridge Lake and Snow Bird Lake, arrived on 
the 2d March at a large tent of Northern Indians, not far 
from the Doobaunt Whoie River. Although these people 
had remained in the same spot since the beginning of win- 
ter, they found a plentiful subsistence by catching deer in a 
pound. Their mode of accomplishing this is to select a 
well-frequented deer-path, and enclose with a strong fence 
of twisted trees and brushwood a space about a mile in cir- 
K 



110 CATCHING DEER IN A POUND. 

cumference, and sometimes more. The ertrance of the pound 
is not larcrer than a common gate, and its inside is crowded 
with innumerable small hedges, in the openmgs of which 
are fixed snares of strong well-twisted thongs. One end is 
generally fastened to a growing tree ; and as all the wood 
and iungle within the enclosure is left standing, its mterior 
forms a complete labyrinth. On each side ot the door, a 
line of small trees, stuck up in the snow fifteen or twenty 
yards apart, form two sides of an acute angle, widening 
iradually from the entrance, from which they sometimes 
extend two or three miles. Between these rows of brush- 
wood runs the path frequented by the deer. When all things 
are prepared, the Indians take their station on some emi- 
nence commanding a prospect of this path, and the moment 
any deer are seen going that way, the whole encampment, 
men, women, and children, steal under cover of the woods^ 
till they get behind them. They then show themselves in 
the open ground, and, drawing up in the form of a cres- 
cent, advance with shouts. The deer, finding themselves 
pursued, and at the same time imagining the rows of brushy 
poles to be people stationed to prevent their passing on either 
side, run straight forward till they get into the pound. The 
Indians instantly close in, block up the entrance, and while 
the women and children run round the outside to prevent 
them from breaking or leaping the fence, the men enter 
with their spears and bows, and speedily despatch such as 
are caught in the snares or are running loose.* 

On the 8th of April, they reached an inland in a small 
lake named Thelewey-aza-weth, and pitched their tent ; and 
as the deer were numerous, and the party, which had been 
joined by various wandering Indians, now amounted to sev- 
enty persons, they determined to remain for some time, and 
make preparations for their enterprise in the ensuing sum- 
mer. They were busily employed during their intervals 
from hunting, in providing staves of birch about one and a 
quarter inch square and seven or eight feet long, wluch 
served for tent-poles all the summer, and were converted 
into snow-shoes in winter. Birch-rind, with timbers and 
other wood for canoes, formed also objects of attention ; 
and as Clowey, the place fixed upon for building their c?- 



* Hearne's Journey, p 78-80. 



NORTHERN INDIAN WOMEN. Ill 

noes, was still many miles distant, all the wood was reduced 
to its proper size to make it light for carriage. At this 
place Matonabbee solaced himself by purchasing from some 
Northern Indians another wife, who for size and sinews 
might have shamed a grenadier. " Take them in a body," 
says Hearne, " and the Indian women are as destitute of 
real beauty as those of any nation I ever saw, although 
there are some few of them when young who are tolerable ; 
but the care of a family, added to their constant hard labour, 
soon make the most beautiful among them look old and 
wrinkled, even before they are thirty, and several of the 
more ordinary ones at that age are perfect antidotes to the 
tender passion. Ask a Northern Indian What is beauty 1 
he will answer, A broad flat face, small eyes, high cheek- 
bones, three or four broad black lines across each cheek, a 
low forehead, a large broad chin, a hook nose, and a tawny 
hide. These beauties are greatly heightened, or at least 
rendered more valuable, if the possessor is capable of dress- 
ing all kinds of skins, and able to carry eight or ten stone 
in summer, and to haul a far greater weight in winter. 
Such and similar accomplishments are all that are sought 
after or expected in an Indian Northern woman. As to 
their temper, it is of little consequence ; for the men have 
a wonderful facility in making the most stubborn comply 
with as much alacrity as could be expected from those of 
the mildest and most obliging turn of mind."* 

Before starting from this station, Matonabbee took the 
precaution of sending in advance a small party with the 
wood aud birch-rind ; they were directed to press forward 
to Clowey, a lake near the barren ground, and there build 
the boat, to be ready upon their arrival. When the jour- 
ney was about to be resumed, one of the women was taken 
in labour. The moment the poor creature was delivered, 
"which," says Hearne, "was not till she had suffered a 
severe labour of fifty-two hours," the signal was made for 
setting forward ; the mother took her infant on her back, 
and walked with the rest ; and though another person had 
the humanity to haul her sledge for one day only, she was 
obliged to carry a considerable load in addition to her little 
one, and was compelled frequently to wade knee-deep in 

* Hearne's Journey, p. 89, 90. 



112 ARRIVAL AT CLOWE Y. 

water and wet snow. Amid all this, her looks, pale and 
emaciated, and the moans which burst from her, sufficiently 
proved the intolerable pain she endured, but produced no 
effect upon the hard hearts of her husband and his com- 
panions. When an Indian woman is taken in labour, a 
small tent is erected for her, at such a distance from the 
encampment that her cries cannot be heard, and the other 
women are her attendants, no male except children in arms 
ever offering to approach ; and even in the most critical 
cases no assistance is ever given, — a conduct arising from 
the opinion that nature is sufficient to perform all that is 
necessary. When Hearne informed them of the assistance 
derived by European women from the skill and attention of 
regular practitioners, their answer was ironical and charac- 
teristic. " No doubt," said they, " the many hump-backs, 
bandy-legs, and other deformities so common among you 
English are owing to the great skill of the persons who 
assisted in bringing them into the world, and to the extra- 
ordinary care of their nurses afterward."* 

In eleven days they travelled a distance of eighty-five 
miles, and on the 3d May arrived at Clowey, where they 
were joined by some strange Indians, and commenced the 
important business of building their canoes. The party 
sent ahead for this purpose arrived only two days before, 
and had made no progress in joining the timbers they hadl 
carried along with them. The whole tools used by an 
Indian in this operation, in making snow-shoes and all other 
kinds of wood-work, are a hatchet, a knife, a file, and an 
awl ; but in the use of these they are very dexterous. In 
shape, their canoes bear some resemblance to a weaver's 
shuttle, having flat bottoms, with straight upright sides, and 
sharp at each end. The stern is the widest part, being 
constructed for the reception of the baggage ; and occasion- 
ally it admits a second person, who lies at full length in 
the bottom of the little vessel, which seldom exceeds twelve 
or thirteen feet in length, and about twenty inches or two 
feet in breadth at the widest part. The forepart is unneces- 
sarily long and narrow, and covered with birch-bark, which 
adds to the weight without contributing to the burden of 
the canoe. The Indians, for the most part, employ a single 

* Hearae's Journey, p. 93. 



JOINED BY MANY INDIANS. 113 

paddle ; double ones, like those of the Esquimaux, are sel- 
dom used unless by hunters, who lie in ambush for the pur- 
pose of killing deer as they cross rivers and narrow lakes. 
Upon the whole, their vessels, though formed of the same 
materials as those of the Southern Indians, are much smaller 
and lighter ; and, from the extreme simplicity of build, are 
the best that could be contrived for the necessities of these 
poor savages, who are frequently obliged to carry them upon 
their back 100 and sometimes 150 miles, without having 
occasion to launch them. 

At Clowey the expedition was joined by nearly 200 
Indians from various quarters, most of whom built canoes 
there ; and on the 23d May, Mr. Hearne and Matonabbee, 
whose character and consequence effectually protected the 
white man from plunder, proceeded northward. For some 
time they met with no distresses, except those occasioned 
by the intense cold, which had been preceded by thunder- 
storms and torrents of rain. Misfortune, however, now at- 
tacked Matonabbee on the tender side of his eight wives, 
the handsomest of whom eloped in the night, accompanied 
by another woman. Both having been carried off by force, 
it was suspected they had f]ed to the eastward with the plan 
of rejoining their former husbands. Scarce had the savage 
polygamist recovered from this blow, when he experienced 
a fresh mortification : an Indian of great strength, from 
whom Matonabbee a short time before had purchased a stout, 
and therefore valuable, wife, insisted on taking her back, 
unless he instantly surrendered acertain quantity of ammuni- 
■tion, a kettle, some pieces of iron, and other articles. The 
hardship of this case arose from an extraordinary custom, 
by which the men are permitted to wrestle for any woman 
to whom they are attached, the victorious party carrying off 
the prize. It is for this reason that the greatest emulation 
prevails in all athletic exercises among the young Indians ; 
and the children are perpetually seen trying their powers in 
wrestling, under the idea that this is the education which will 
chiefly benefit them when they grow up. A weak man sel- 
dom long retains a wife whose services another wants ; for 
w^hen the helpmates of an able-bodied savage are too heavily 
laden with furs or provisions, he makes no scruple of seizing 
the spouse of his weaker neighbour, and transferring part 
of the burden to her back ; while, if the injured party can- 
K2 



114 MATONABBEES PRIDE. 

not challenge the aggressor to a wrestling-match, he must 
not otherwise complain. The distress, therefore, of Maton- 
abbee upon this occasion may be easily accounted for, as he 
was wounded in his pride and in his property, if not in his 
affections. But a personal contest was out of the question, 
and he was obliged to purchase his favourite over again, by- 
yielding up all that was demanded by his antagonist. This 
affair had nearly proved a serious obstacle to the expedition ; 
for so bitterly did the chief resent the affront, entertaining 
the highest ideas of his personal consequence, that he had 
resolved, like a Coriolanus of the New World, to renounce 
all further alliance with his countrymen, and join the Atha- 
basca Indians, among whom he had formerly resided. But 
Hearne strenuously opposed this project, and at last suc- 
ceeded in dissuading him from it.* 

Having agreed to proceed, Matonabbee, for the better 
prosecution of the enterprise, determined to make some new 
arrangements : he selected his two youngest wives, who 
were unencumbered with children, as alone worthy to ac- 
company him, while the remainder, with all their luggage 
and a considerable number of the men, were commanded to 
await the return of the party from the Coppermine River. 
This change of plan, however, was not carried through 
without difficulty. When the hour of separation came, and 
Matonabbee and Hearne set out in the evening of 31st May, 
a low murmur of lamentation proceeded from the tents of 
the women who were left behind, which, running through 
all the notes of increasing grief, at last burst into a loud 
yell. This continued as long as the party were in sight ; 
nor was it without much angry expostulation that some of 
them were prevented from following their husbands. The 
Indians, however, regarded all this, which deeply affected 
their European associate, with indifference, walking forward 
without casting behind them a single look or word of sym- 
pathy, and joyfully congratulating themselves on getting rid 
of the women, dogs, children, and other encumbrances, 
which added so greatly to the toil of the journey. One ar- 
ticle they all carried, although to Hearne it appeared un- 
necessary, considering the expedition to be pacific, — this was 

Jarget of thin boards two feet broad and about three feet 

* Hearne's Journey, p. Ill, 112. 



COPPER INDIANS. 115 

long. On inquiring for what purpose these shields were to 
be used, he discovered that the main consideration which 
reconciled the Indians to this expedition was the hope of 
attacking and murdering the Esquimaux who frequented the 
Coppermine River, between whom and the other Indian 
tribes there had long existed a deadly enmity. All the argu- 
ments employed by Hearne were insufficient to dissuade 
them from these hostile intentions. 

The party, having crossed the arctic circle, arrived at Co- 
gead Lake, which they found frozen over ; so that they 
traversed its creeks and bays without the aid of their canoes. 
Thence they directed their course due north till they met 
with a branch of the Congecathawhachaga River, where 
some Copper Indians received them with great kindness, 
and readily sent all their canoes to their assistance, — a 
piece of courtesy particularly seasonable, as the ice had 
now broken up. To these Indians Hearne explained the 
object of his journey, and his guide being personally 
known to them, they treated the party, which consisted of 
150 persons, with distinguished honour ; a feast was given, 
the English traveller smoked with them his calumet of 
peace, and their chiefs expressed the greatest anxiety that 
a European settlement should be established in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Coppermine River. They acknowledo-ed 
they had never found the sea at the mouth of the river free 
from ice ; but with singular simplicity seemed to consider 
this a very trifling objection, observing, that the water was 
always so smooth between the ice and the shore, that even 
small boats could sail there with great ease ; and inferring 
that what a canoe could do a large ship must be sure to ac- 
complish. As Hearne was the first white man they had 
seen, he was surrounded by numbers, who examined him 
with the utmost minuteness. The result, however, was 
satisfactory ; for they at last pronounced him to be a perfect 
human being, except in the colour of his hair and eyes : 
the first they insisted was like the stained hair of a buffalo's 
tail, and the last, being light, were compared to those of a 
gull. The whiteness of his skin also was a circumstance 
on which they demurred a httle, observing, that it looked 
like meat which had been sOdden in water till all the blood 
was extracted. He continued, however, to be viewed with 
a mixture of curiosity and admiration, and at his toilet was 



Ud VARIATIONS IN THE CLIMATE. 

generally attended by a body of the Indians, who, when he 
used his comb, asked for the hairs which came off. These 
they carefully wrapped up, saying, " When I see you again, 
you shall again see your hair."* 

On reaching Congecathawhachaga in latitude 68° 46' 
north, Matonabbee deemed it expedient to leave all the 
women, taking the precaution to kill as many deer as were 
necessary for their support during his absence. The flesh 
was cut into thin slices and dried in the sun, — a frequent 
mode of preserving it in these high northern latitudes, by 
which it is kept palatable and nourishing for a twelve- 
month. Having completed these arrangements, the party 
resumed their journey on the 1st of July, proceeding amid 
dreadful storms of snow and occasional torrents of rain, 
which drenched them to the skin, through a barren and 
desolate country, where it was impossible with the wet 
moss and green brushwood to kindle a fire. Compelled to 
take shelter in caves at night, — for they had no tents, — 
obliged to eat their meat raw, with the enjoyment of no 
higher luxury than a pipe, they yet pushed forward with 
unshaken perseverance, and after a week of great suffering 
had the comfort to observe a complete change in the weather, 
which first became moderate, and soon after so sultry that 
it was sometimes impossible to move at all. 

Early on the morning of 13th July, the expedition crossed 
a long chnin of hills, from the top of which they discerned 
a branch that joins the Coppermine about forty miles from 
its influx into the sea. Here the Indians killed a few fine 
buck-deer, procured some excellent firewood, and, as it was 
not certain that so favourable an opportunity would soon 
occur again, they sat down with appetites sharpened by 
long privation, spirits raised by the recollection of hardships 
overcome, and the almost certain prospect of ere long ac- 
complishing the great object of their expedition, to the 
most cheerful and comfortable meal they had enjoyed for a 
long period. The reader will be amused with Hearne's 
description of this delicious repast, and of the mysteries of 
Indian cookery. "As such favourable opportunities of in- 
dulging the appetite," says he, "happen but seldom, it is a 
general rule with the Indians, which we did not neglect, to 

♦ Hearne's Journey, p. 122. 



THE COPPERMINE RIVER. 117 

exert every art in dressing their food which the most refined 
skill in Indian cooking has been able to invent, and which 
consists chiefly in boiling, broiling, and roasting ; but of all 
the dishes cooked by these people, a becatee, as it is called 
in their language, is certainly the most delicious (at least 
for a change) which can be prepared from a deer only with- 
out any other ingredient. It is a kind of Scotch ' haggis' 
made with the blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, 
some of the tenderest of the flesh, together with the heart 
and lungs, cut or more commonly torn into small shivers, — 
all which is put into the stomach and roasted, by being sus- 
pended over the fire by a string. Care must be taken that 
it does not get too much heat at first, as the bag would 
thereby be liable to be burnt and the contents let out. 
When it is sufficiently done it will emit a rich steam, in the 
same manner as a fowl or a joint of meat, which is as 
much as to say, ' Come eat me now !' and if it be taken in 
time, before the blood or the contents are too much done, it 
is certainly a most delicious morsel, even without pepper, 
salt, or any other seasoning."* 

Having regaled themselves in this sumptuous manner, 
and taken a few hours' rest, they once more set out, and 
after a walk of nine or ten miles, at last arrived at the Cop- 
permine. Scarcely had Hearne congratulated himself on 
reaching the great object of his mission, unpacked his sur- 
veying instruments, and prepared to follow its progress to 
the great Arctic Ocean, when one of those dark and terri- 
ble scenes occurred which are so strikingly characteristic 
of savage life. As soon as Matonabbee and his party 
gained the banks of the river, three sspies were sent out to 
discover whether any Esquimaux were in the neighbour- 
hood. After a short absence they returned with intelli- 
gence that they had seen five tents, about twelve miles dis- 
tant on the west side of the river. All was now warlike 
preparation ; the guns, knives, and spears were carefully 
examined ; and as they learned that the nature of the 
ground would render it easy to advance unperceived, it was 
determined to steal upon their victims in this manner, and 
put them to death. This plan was executed with the most 
savage exactness ; and nothing could present a more dread- 

* Heame's Journey, p. 144. 



118 ATTACK ON THE ESQUIMAUX. 

ful view of human nature in its unenlightened state than 
the perfect unanimity of purpose which pervaded the whole 
body of Indians upon this horrid occasion, dithough at 
other times they were in no respect amenable to discipline. 

Each man first painted his target, some with a represent- 
ation of the sun, others of the moon, and several with the 
pictures of beasts and birds of prey, or of imaginary be- 
ings, which they affirmed to be the inhabitants of the ele- 
ments upon whose assistance they relied for success in 
their enterprise. They then moved with the utmost stealth 
in the direction of the tents, taking care not to cross any 
of the hills which concealed their approach. It was a 
miserable circumstance that these poor creatures had taken 
up their abode in such ground that their enemies, without 
being observed, formed an ambuscade not 200 yards' dis- 
tant, and lay for some time watching the motions of the 
Esquimaux, as if marking their victims. Here the last 
preparations for the attack were made : the Indians tied up 
their long black hair in a knot behind, lest it should be 
blown in their eyes ; painted their faces black and red, 
which gave them a hideous aspect; deliberately tucked up 
the sleeves of their jackets close under the armpits, and 
pulled off their stockings ; while some, still more eager to 
render themselves light for running, threw off their jackets, 
and stood with their weapons in their hands quite naked, 
except their breech-clothes and shoes. By the time all 
were ready it was near one o'clock in the morning ; when, 
finding the Esquimaux quiet, they rushed from their con- 
cealment. In an instant, roused by the shouts of the 
savages, the unfortunate wretches, men, women, and chil- 
dren, ran naked out of the tents, and attempted to escape ; 
but the Indians had surrounded them on the land side, and 
as none dared to leap into the river, all were murdered in 
cold blood ; while Hearne, whom a regard for his personal 
safety had compelled to accompany the party, stood a short 
way off rooted to the ground in horror and agony. 

" The shrieks and groans of the poor expiring wretches," 
says he, in his striking account of this dreadful episode in 
savage life, "were truly distressing; and my horror was 
much increased at seeing a young girl, about eighteen years 
of age, killed so near me that when the first spear was 
struck into her side she fell down at my feet and twisted 



DREADFUL MASSACRE. 119 

round my legs, so that it was with difficulty that I could 
disengage myself from her dying grasps. As two Indian 
men pursued this unfortunate victim, I solicited very hard 
for her life ; but the murderers made no reply till tliey had 
stuck both their spears through her body and transfixed her 
to the ground. They then looked me sternly in the face, 
and began to ridicule me by asking if I wanted an Esqui- 
maux wife, while they paid not the smallest regard to the 
shrieks and agony of the poor wretch, who was turning 
round their spears like an eel. Indeed, after receiving 
from them much abusive language on the occasion, I was 
at length obliged to desire that they would be more expe- 
ditious in despatching their victim out of her misery, othei'- 
wise I should be obliged out of pity to assist in the friendly 
office of putting an end to the existence of a fellow-crea- 
ture who was so cruelly wounded. On this request being 
made, one of the Indians hastily drew his spear from the 
place where it was first lodged, and pierced it through her 
breast near the heart. The love of life, however, even in 
this most miserable state, was so predominant, that though 
this might be justly called the most merciful act which 
could be done for the poor creature, it seemed to be unwel- 
come ; for, though much exhausted by pain and loss of 
blood, she made several efTorto to ward ofT the friendly 
blow. My situation and the terror of my mind at behold- 
ing this butchery cannot easily be conceived, much less de- 
scribed : though I summoned up all the fortitude I was mas- 
ter of on the occasion, it was with difficulty that I could re- 
frain from tears ; and I am confident that my features must 
have feelingly expressed how sincerely I was affected at the 
barbarous scene I then witnessed. Even at this hour I 
cannot reflect on the transactions of that horrid day without 
shedding tears."* 

After making an accurate survey of the river till its 
junction with the sea, Hearne proceeded to one of the cop- 
per-mines, which he found scarcely to deserve the name, it 
being nothing more than a chaotic mass of rocks and 
gravel, rent by an earthquake, or some other convulsion, 
into numerous fissures, through one of which flowed a small 
river. Although the Indians had talked in magnificent 

» Hearne's Jouracy, p. 154, 



120 ATHABASCA LAKE. 

terms of this mine, after a search of four hours a soHtary 
piece of ore was all that could be discovered ; and instead 
of pointing out the hills entirely composed of copper, and 
the quantities of rich ore with which they had affirmed it 
would be easy to freight a large vessel, they now told a 
ridiculous story of some insults offered to the goddess of 
the mine, who in revenge declared that she would sit upon 
it till she and it sunk together into the earth. In conse- 
quence of this threat, they next year found her sunk up to 
the waist, and the quantity of copper much' decreased, 
while the following summer she had entirely disappeared, 
and the whole mine along with her. 

In reaching the sea, Hearne had accomplished the great 
object of his journey, and his homeward route did not vary 
materially from his course to the Arctic Ocean. On 31st 
July, they arrived at the place where the Indians had left 
their families, and on 9th August resumed their course to 
the south-west ; travelling with frequent intervals of rest 
till, on 24th November, they reached the northern shore of 
the great xAthabasca Lake. In this latitude, at this season, 
the sun's course formed an extremely small segment of a 
circle above the horizon, scarcely rising half-way up the 
trees ; but the brilliancy of the stars, and the vivid and 
beautiful light emitted by the aurora borealis, even without 
the aid of the moon, amply compensated for the want of 
the sun, so that at midnight Hearne could see to read very 
small print. In the deep stillness of the night, also, these 
northern meteors were distinctly heard to make a rushing 
and crackling noise, like the waving of a large flag in a 
fresh gale of wind.* According to the information of the 
natives, the Athabasca Lake is nearly 120 leagues long 
from east to west, and twenty wide from north to south. 
It was beautifully studded with islands, covered with tall 
poplars, birch, and pines, which were plentifully stocked 
with deer, and abounded with pike, trout, and barbel, be- 
sides the species known by the Indians under the names ot 
tittameg, methy, and shees. 

The country through which they had hitherto travelled 
had been extremely barren and hilly, covered with stunted 
firs and dwarf willows ; but it nov/ subsided into a fin«» 

* Hearne's Journey, p. 224. 



STORY OF AN INDIAN WOMAN. 121 

plain, occasionally varied with tall woods, and well stocked 
with buffalo and moose-deer. The party spent some days wi.h 
much pleasure in hunting ; and as the Hesh of the younger 
buffaloes was delicious, their exhausted stock of provisions 
was seasonably supplied. In one of their excursions an 
incident occurred strikingly characteristic of savage life 
The Indians came suddenly on the track of a strange 
snow-shoe, and following it to a wild part of the country, 
remote from any human habitation, they discovered a hut, 
in which a young Indian woman was sitting alone. She 
had lived for the last eight moons in absolute solitude, and 
recounted with affecting simplicity the circumstances by 
which she had been driven from her own people. She be- 
longed, she said, to the tribe of the Dog-ribbed Indians, 
and in an inroad of the Athabasca nation, in the summer 
of 1770, had been taken prisoner. The savages, according 
to their invariable practice, stole upon the tents in the 
night, and murdered before her face her father, mother, and 
husband, while she and three other young women were re- 
served from the slaughter, and made captive. Her child, 
four or five months old, she contrived to carry with her, 
concealed among some clothing ; but on arriving at the 
place where the party had left their wives, her precious 
bundle was examined hy the Athabasca women, one of 
whom tore the infant from its mother, and killed it on the 
spot. In Europe, an act so inhuman would, in all proba- 
bility, have been instantly followed by the insanity of the 
parent ; but in North America, though maternal affection 
is equally intense, the nerves are more sternly strung. So 
horrid a cruelty, however, determined her, though the man 
whose property she had become was kind and careful of 
her, to take the first opportunity of escaping, with the in- 
tention of returning to her own nation ; but the great dis- 
tance, and the numerous winding rivers and creeks she had 
to pass, caused her to lose the way, and winter coming on, 
she had built a hut in this secluded spot. When discovered, 
she was in good health, well fed, and in the opinion of 
Hearne one of the finest Indian women he had ever seen. 
Five or six inches of hoop made into a knife, and the iron 
ghank of an arrow-head which served as an awl, were the 
only implements she possessed ; and with these she made 
gnow-shoes and other useful articles. For subsistence she 
L 



122 RETURN TO PRINCE OF WALES* FORT. 

snared partridges, rabbits, and squirrels, and had killed two 
or three beavers and some porcupines. After the few deer- 
sinews she had brought with her were expended in making 
snares and sewing her clothing, she supplied their place 
with the sinews of rabbits' legs, which she twisted together 
with great dexterity. Thus occupied, she not only became 
reconciled to her desolate situation, but had found time to 
amuse herself by manufacturing little pieces of personal 
ornament. Her clothing was formed of rabbit-skins sewed 
together ; the materials, though rude, being tastefully dis- 
posed, so as to make her garb assume a pleasing though 
desert-bred appearance. The singular circumstances under 
which she was found, her beauty and useful accomplish- 
ments, occasioned a contest among the Indians, as to who 
should have her for a wife ; and the matter being decided, 
she accompanied them in their journey. On 1st March, 
they left the level country of the Athabascas, and approached 
the stony hills bounding the territories of the Northern 
Indians, traversing which they arrived in safety at Prince 
of Wales' Fort on the 29th of June, 1772, having been ab- 
sent eighteen months and twenty-three days. 

The journey of Hearne must be regarded as forming an 
important era in the geography of America. For some 
time it had been supposed that this vast contnien*^ extended 
in an almost unbroken mass towards the Pole ; and we find 
it thus depicted in the maps of that period. The circum- 
stance of Hearne having reached the shore of the great 
Arctic Ocean at once demonstrated the fallacy of all such 
ideas. It threw a new and clear light upon the structure 
of this portion of the globe, and resting upon the results 
thus distinctly ascertained, the human mind, indefatigable in 
the pursuit of knowledge, started forward in a career of 
still more enlarged and interesting discovery.* 

While the Hudson's Bay Company, by the mission of 
Mr. Hearne, vindicated their character from the charge of in- 
difference to the cause of geographical discovery, another 
institution had arisen, under the title of the North-west 
Fur Company, which, though it did not rest on a royal char- 
ter, and had experienced in iis earliest exertions many severe 
reverses, at last arrived, by the intelligence and perseverance 

* Murray's Discove'-'es and Travels in North America, vol. ii. jv 149 



SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE. 123 

<kf its partners and servants, at a degree of prosperity which 
surpassed the chartered companies of France and England. 
In the counting-house of Mr. Gregory, a partner of this 
company, was bred a native of Inverness, named Alexander 
Mackenzie. In conducting the practical details of the fur- 
trade, he had been settled at an early period of life in the 
country to the north-west of Lake Superior, and became 
animated with the ambition of penetrating across the con- 
tinent : for this undertaking he was eminently qualified, 
possessing an inquisitive and enterprising mind, with a strong 
frame of body, and combining the fervid and excursive genius 
which has been said to characterize the Scots in general, 
with that more cautious and enduring temperament which 
belongs to the northern Highlander. 

On 3d June, 1789, Mackenzie set out from Fort Chepe- 
wyan, at the head of the Athabasca Lake, a station nearly 
central between Hudson's Bay and the Pacific. He had 
resided here for eight years, and was familiar with the diffi- 
culties of the journey as well as aware of the most likely 
methods of surmounting them. He took with him four 
canoes. In the first he embarked with a German and four 
Canadians, two of the latter being accompanied by their 
wives. A Northern Indian, called the English Chief, who 
had been a follower of MaLonabbee, the guide of Mr. Hearne, 
occupied the second with his two wives. The third was 
paddled by two stout young Indians, who acted in the double 
capacity of hunters and interpreters ; while the fourth was 
laden with provisions, clothing, ammunition, and various 
articles intended as presents for the Indians. This last 
canoe was committed to the charge of Mr. Le Roux, one of 
the company's clerks. 

On 4th June, the party reached the Slave River, which 
connects the x\thabasca and Slave Lakes, in a course of 
about one hundred and seventy miles ; and on the 9th of the 
same month they arrived at the Slave Lake, without ex- 
periencing any other mconveniences than those arising from 
th? attacks of the mosquitoes during the heat of the day, 
and the extreme cold in the morning and evening. In the 
river were frequent rapids, which obliged them to land and 
transport their canoes and luggage over the carrying-places, 
' — a toilsome process, but attended with no danger, as the 
path had been cleared by the Indians trading with the com- 



124 RED KNIFE INDIANS. 

pany. The banks were covered with various kinds of trees ; 
but, owing to its inferior level and its rich black soil, the 
western side was more thickly wooded than the other. On 
the eastern bank, composed of a yellow clay mixed with 
gravel, the trees were smaller, but in full leaf, though the 
ground was not thawed above fourteen inches in depth. At 
a little distance from the river were extensive plains fre- 
quented by herds of buffaloes ; the woods bordering its 
sides were tenanted by moose and rein-deer ; and numerous 
colonies of beavers builttheir habitations on the small streams 
which fed the lake. This large body of water was covered 
with ice, which had not given way except in a' small strip 
round the shore, where the depth, nowhere exceeding three 
feet, was scarcely sufficient to float the canoes. Though 
now the 9th of June, there was every appearance that the 
ice would detain the expedition for a considerable time ; and 
it was thought necessary to pitch their tents. The nets 
were now set ; the Indians went off in different directions 
to hunt ; the women gathered berries of various sorts, which 
abounded in the neighbouring woods ; and their larder was 
soon supplied with plenty of geese, ducks, and beaver, ex- 
cellent trout, carp, and white-fish, and some dozens of swan 
and duck eggs, which were picked up on an adjacent island. 
Their stay, therefore, was far from unpleasant, combining 
the novelty of a residence in a strange country with the ex 
citation and variety of a hunter's life ; and on the 15th, 
after a rest of six days, as the ice had given way a little, 
they resumed their journey. 

Since leaving Athabasca, the twilight had been so bright, 
owing to the short disappearance of the sun below the 
horizon, that even at midnight not a star was to be seen ; 
but as they glided along the lake they were greeted by the 
moon, which rose beautifully above the woods, with her 
lower horn in a state of echpse. The obscuration continued 
for about six minutes in a cloudless sky.* Coasting along 
the shore, they came to a lodge of Red Knife Indians, so 
denominated from their using copper knives. One of these 
men engaged to conduct them to the mouth of the river 
which was the object of their search ; but such were the 
impediments encountered from drift-ice, contrary winds, and 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 11. 



SLAVE AND DOG-RIBBED INDIANS. 125 

the ignorance of the guide, whom the English Chief 
threatened to murder for engaging in a service for which he 
was unfit, that it was the 29th of the month before they em- 
barked upon the river since known by the name of the 
traveller who now first ascended it. On leaving the lake, 
the Mackenzie River was found to run to the westward, 
becoming gradually narrower for twenty-four miles, till it 
diminished into a stream not more than half a mile wide, 
with a strong current, and a depth of three and a half 
fathoms. A stiff breeze from the eastward now drove them 
on at a great rate, and after a rapid run of ten miles, the 
channel gradually widened till it assumed the appearance 
of a small lake, which proved to be the utmost limit known 
to their guide. They now came in sight of the chain of 
the Horn Mountains, bearing north-west, and had some 
difficulty in recovering the channel of the river. 

Having resumed their course on 1st July, they met with 
no interruption for five days, when they observed several 
smokes on the northern bank. On landing they discovered 
an encampment of five families of Slave and Dog- ribbed 
Indians, who on the first appearance of the party fled into 
the woods in consternation. The entreaties of the English 
Chief, whose language they understood, at length dissipated 
their apprehensions ; and the distribution of a few beads, 
rings, and knives, with a supply of grog, reconciled them 
entirely to the strangers. Their account of the difficulties 
in the farther navigation of the river was not a little ap- 
palling : they asserted that it would require several winters 
to reach the sea, and that old age would inevitably overtake 
the party before their return. Monsters of horrid shapes 
and malignant disposition were represented as having their 
abodes in the rocky caves on the banks, ready to devour the 
presumptuous traveller who approached ; and the more sub- 
stantial impediment of two impassable falls was said to 
exist about thirty days' march from where they then were. 

Though such tales were treated with contempt by Mac- 
kenzie, the Indians, already tired of the voyage, drank them 
in with willing ears, and they could scarcely be persuaded 
to pursue their journey. On consenting to proceed, one of 
the Dog-ribbed Indians was induced, by the present of a 
kettle, an axe, and some other articles, to accompany them 
as a guide ; but when the time of embarkation arrived, his 



126 SLAVE AND DOG-RIBBED INDIANS. 

love of home came upon him with such violence that he 
used every artifice to escape from his agreement, and at 
last was actually forced on board. Previous to his depart- 
ure, a singular ceremony took place : with great solemnity 
he cut off a lock of his hair, and dividing it into three parts, 
fastened one to the upper part of his wife's head, blowing on 
it thrice with the utmost violence, and uttering certain 
words as a charm. The other two locks he fixed with the 
same ceremonies to the heads of his two children. These 
Indians were in general a meager, ugly, and ill-favoured race, 
particularly ill-made in the legs. Some of them wore their 
hair very long, others allowed a tress to fall behind, cutting 
the rest short round their ears. A few old men had beards, 
while the young and middle-aged appeared to have pulled 
out every hair on their chin. Each cheek was adorned by 
two doub'e lines tattooed from the ear to the nose, of which 
the gristle was perforated so as to admit a goose-quill or a 
small piece of wood. Their clothing consisted of dressed 
deer-skins. For winter wear these were prepared with the 
fur, and the shirts made of them decorated with a neat em- 
broidery, composed of porcupine-quills and the hair of the 
moose-deer, coloured red, black, yellow, or white. Their 
shirts reached to the mid-thigh, while their upper garments 
covered the whole body, having a fringe round the bottom. 
Their leggins, which were embroidered round the ankle and 
sewed to their shoes, reached to mid-thigh. The dress of 
the women was nearly the same as that of the men. They 
wore gorgets of horn or wood, and had bracelets of the 
same materials. On their head was placed a fillet or ban- 
deau, formed of strips of leather, embroidered richly with 
porcupine-quilb, and stuck round with bears' claws or talons 
of wild fowl. Their belts and garters were neatly con- 
structed of the sinews of wild animals and porcupine-quills. 
From these belts descended a long fringe composed of strings 
of leather, and worked round with hair of various colours, 
and their mittens hung from their neck in a position con- 
venient for the reception of their hands.* Their arms and 
weapons for the chase were bows and arrows, spears, 
daggers, and a large club formed of the rein-deer horn, 
called a pogamagan. The bows were about five or six feet 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 35-37. 



AMERICAN MUSIC. 127 

long, with strings of sinews ; and flint, iron, or copper, 
supplied barbs to the arrows. Their spears, nearly six 
feet long, were pointed with bone, while their stone axes 
were fastened with cords of green skin to a wooden handle. 
Their canoes were light, and so small as to carry only one 
person. 

On 5th July, the party re-embarked. Continuing their 
course west-south-west they passed the Great Bear Lake 
River ; and steering through numerous islands, came in 
sight of a ridge of snowy mountains, frequented, according 
to their guide, by herds of bears and small white buffaloes. 
The banks of the river appeared to be pretty thickly peopled ; 
and though at first the natives uniformly attempted to escape, 
the offer of presents generally brought them back, and pro- 
cured a seasonable supply of hares, partridges, fish, or rein- 
deer. The same stories of spirits or manitous which haunted 
the stream, and of fearful rapids that would dash the canoes 
to pieces, were repeated by these tribes ; and the guide, 
upon whom such representations had a powerful effect, de- 
camped in the night during a storm of thunder and light- 
ning. His place, however, was soon supplied ; and, after a 
short sail, they approached an encampment of Indians, 
whose brawny figures, healthy appearance, and great clean- 
liness showed them to be a superior race to those lately 
passed. From them Mackenzie learned that he must sleep 
ten nights before arriving at the sea, and in three nights 
would meet the Esquimaux, with whom they had been 
formerly at war, but were now in a state of peace. One of 
these people, whose language was most intelligible to the 
interpreter, agreed to accompany the party ; but became 
dreadfully alarmed when some of the men discharged their 
fowling-pieces. It was evident none of this race had ever 
heard the report of firearms. To reconcile him to his de- 
parture, his two brothers followed in their canoes, and di- 
verted him with native songs, and other airs said to be imi- 
tations of those of the Esquimaux. The triumph of music 
was never more strikingly exhibited ; from deep dejection 
the Indian at once passed into a state of the highest and 
most ludicrous excitement, keeping time to the songs by a 
variety of grotesque gesticulations, performed with such un- 
ceasing rapidity and so little regard to the slendemess of the 
bark, which quivered under his weight, that they expected 



128 QUARRELLER INDIANS. 

every moment to see it upset. In one of his paroxysms, 
shooting his canoe alongside of Mackenzie's, he leaped 
into it, and commenced an Esquimaux dance. At last he 
was restored to some degree of composure, which became 
complete on their passing a hill, where he informed them 
that three winters ago the Esquimaux had slain his grand- 
fether.* 

Mackenzie soon after reached the tents of a tribe named 
Deguthee-Dinees, or Quarrellers, who justified their name 
by the menacing gestures with which they received the 
strangers' approach. A few presents, however, reconciled 
them to the intrusion ; and they communicated .the gratify- 
ing intelligence that the distance overland to the sea, either 
by an easterly or westerly route, was inconsiderable. The 
party now pushed on with renewed hopes ; and the river 
soon after separating into several streams, they chose the 
middle and largest, which ran north. This shortly brought 
in sight a range of snowy mountains, stretching far to the 
northward ; and, by an observation, Mackenzie found the 
latitude to be 67° 47', which convinced him that the 
waters on which their frail barks were then gliding must 
flow into the great Hyperborean Ocean. t At this moment, 
when within a few days of accomplishing the great object 
of their journey, the Indians sank into a fit of despondency 
and hesitated to proceed. Ihe guide pleaded his ignorance 
of the country, as he had never before penetrated to the 
shores of the Benahulla Toe, or White Man's Lake. Mac- 
kenzie assured them he would return if they did not reach 
it in seven days, and prevailed on them to continue their 
course. 

It was now the 11th of July, and the sun at midnight 
was still considerably above the horizon, while every thing 
denoted the proximity of the sea. On landing at a deserted 
encampment, still marked by the ashes of some Esquimaux 
fires, they observed several pieces of whalebone, and a 
place where train-oil had been spilt. Soon after they 
came to three houses recently left by the natives. The 
ground-plot of these habitations was oval, about fifteen feet 
long, ten feet wide in the middle, and eight feet at either 
end ; the whole was dug about twelve inches below the 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 51. f Ibid. p. M. 



ESQUIMAUX HOUSES. 129 

surface, one half being covered with willow-branches, and 
probably forming the bed of the whole family. In the mid- 
dle of the other half, a space four feet wide, which had 
been hollowed to the depth of twelve inches, was the only 
spot where a grown person could stand upright. One side 
of it was covered with willow-branches, and the other 
formed the hearth. The door, in one end of the house, 
was about two feet and a half high by two feet wide, and 
was reached through a covered way about five feet long ; 
so that the only access to this curious dwelling was by 
creeping on all-fours. On the top was an orifice about 
eighteen inches square, which served the triple purpose of 
a window, a chimney, and an occasional door. The under- 
ground part of the floor was lined with split wood, while 
cross pieces of timber, laid on six or eight upright stakes, 
supported an oblong square roof; the whole being formed 
of drift-wood, and covered with branches and dry grass, 
over which was spread earth a foot thick. On either side 
of these houses were a few square holes, about two feet 
deep, covered with split wood and earth, excepting one 
small place in the middle, which appeared to be contrived 
for the preservation of the winter stock of provisions. In 
and about the houses lay sled-runners, and bones, pieces 
of whalebone, and poplar-bark cut in circles, used evi- 
dently to buoy the nets ; and before each habitation a great 
number of stumps of trees were driven into the ground, 
upon which its late possessors had probably hung their 
nets and fish to dry in the sun. 

The signs of vegetation were by this time scarcely per- 
ceptible ; the trees had dwindled into a few dwarf willows, 
not more than three feet high ; and though the footmarks 
on the sandy beach of some of the islands showed that the 
natives had recently been there, all attempts to obtain a 
sight of them proved unavailing. The discontent of the 
guide and of the Indian hunters was now renewed ; but 
their assertion, that on the morrow they were to reach 
a large lake in which the Esquimaux killed a huge fish, 
and whose shores were inhabited by white bears, convinced 
Mackenzie that this description referred to the Arctic Sea, 
with its mighty denizen the whale. He accordingly pressed 
forward with fresh ardour, and the canoes were soon 
carried by the current to the entrance of the lake, which, 



130 MACKENZIE REACHES THE ARCTIC SEA. 

from fill the accompanying circumstances appears to have 
been an arm of the Arctic Ocean, It was quite open to 
the westward, and by an observation the latitude was 
found to be 69°. From the spot where this survey was 
taken they now continued their course to the westernmost 
point of a high island, which they reached after a run of 
fifteen miles, and around it the utmost depth of water was 
only five feet. The lake appeared to be covered with ice 
for about two leagues' distance, no land was seen ahead, 
and it was found impossil)le to proceed farther. Happily, 
when they had thus reached the farthest point of their 
progress northward, and were about to return in great dis- 
appointment, two circumstances occurred which rendered 
it certain that they had penetrated to the sea : the first 
was the appearance of many large floating substances in 
the water, believed at first to be masses of ice, which, on 
being approached, turned out to be whales ; and the 
second, the rise and fall of the tide, observed both at the 
eastern and western end of the island, which they named 
Whale Island.* Having in company with the English 
Chief ascended to its highest ground, Mackenzie saw the 
solid ice extending to the eastward ; and to the west, as 
far as the eye could reach, they dimly discerned a chain 
of mountains, apparently about twenty leagues' distance, 
stretching to the northward. Many islands were seen to 
the eastward ; but though they came to a grave, on which 
lay a bow, a paddle, and a spear, they met no living human 
beings in these arctic solitudes. The red-fox and the rein- 
deer, flocks of beautiful plovers, some venerable white owls, 
and several large white gulls were the only natives. Pre- 
vious to setting out on their return, a post was erected close 
to the tents, upon which ihe traveller engraved the latitude 
of the place, his own name, the number of persons by whom 
he was accompanied, and the time they had spent on the 
island. 

It was now the 16th of Jnlv, and they re-embarked on 
their homeward voyage. On the 21st the sun, which for 
some time had never set, descended below the horizon, and 
the same day eleven of the natives joined them. They 
represented their tribe as numerous, and perpetually at 

* Mackenzie, p. 64, 65. 



Mackenzie's returx. 131 

war with the Esquimaux, who had broken a treaty into 
which they had inveigled the Indians, and butchered many 
of them. Occasionally a strong body ascended the river 
in large canoes, in search of flints to point their spears and 
arrows. At present they were on the banks of a lake to 
the eastward, hunting rein-deer, and would soon begin to 
catch big fish (whales) for their winter stock. They had 
been informed that the same Esquimaux, eight or ten 
winters ago, saw to the westward, on White Man's Lake, 
several large canoes full of white men, who gave iron in 
exchange for leather. On landing at a lodge of natives 
farther down the river, the English Chief obtained some 
other particulars from a Dog-ribbi^d Indian, who had been 
driven by some private quarrel from his own nation, and 
lived among the Hare Indians. According to his mfor- 
mation, there was a much larger river to the south-west 
of the mountains, which fell into White Man's Lake. 
The people on its banks were a gigantic and wicked race, 
who could kill common men with their eyes, and sailed in 
huge canoes. There was, he added, no known communi- 
cation by water with this great river ; but those who had 
seen it went over the mountains, and it flowed towards the 
mid-day sun. This description proceeded, he acknow- 
ledged, not from personal observation, but was taken from 
the report of others who iiihabited the opposite mountains. 
Mackenzie, having fallen in with one of these strangers, by 
a bribe of some beads prevailed upon him to delineate the 
circumjacent country and the course of the unknown river 
upon the sand. The map proved a very rude production. 
He traced out a long point of land between the rivers with- 
out paying the least attention to their courses. This isth- 
mus he represented as running into the great lake, at the 
extremity of which, as he had been told by Indians of other 
nations, there was built a Benahulla Couin, or White 
Man's Fort. " This," says Mackenzie, " I took to be 
Oonalaska Fort, and consequently the river to the west to 
be Cook's River, and that the body of water or sea into 
which the river discharges itself at Whale Island commu- 
nicated with Norton Sound." 

Mackenzie now endeavoured to procure a guide across the 
mountains, but the natives steadily refused ; and any ad- 



132 MACKENZIE CONCLUDES HIS FIRST JOURNEY. 

ditional intelligence which they communicated regarding the 
country only consisted of legends concerning the super- 
natural power and ferocity of its inhabitants. They were 
represented as a sort of monsters with wings, who fed on 
huge birds, which, though killed by them with ease, no other 
mortal would venture to assail. Having gravely stated this, 
they began both young and old to jump and dance with 
astonishing violence and perseverance, imitating the cries 
of the rein-deer, bear, and wolf, in the hope of intimidating 
Mackenzie ; but when he threatened with an angry aspect 
to force one of them along with him across the mountains, 
a sudden fit of sickness seized the whole party, and in a 
faint tone, which formed a ludicrous contrast to their former 
vociferation, they declared they would expire the instant 
they were taken from their homes. In the end the traveller 
"was compelled to leave them without accomplishing his 
object.* 

On 1st August, as the expedition approached the river of 
the Bear Lake, the stars, which hitherto, from the extreme 
clearness of the twilight, had continued invisible, began to 
twinkle in the sky ; and the air, from being oppressively 
sultry, became so cold that perpetual exercise could 
scarcely keep the men warm. The women were now con- 
stantly employed in making shoes of moose-skin, as a pair 
did not last more than a day, while the hunters brought in 
supplies of geese, rein-deer, and beaver ; and on one 
occasion a wolf was killed, roasted, and eaten with great 
satisfaction. On 23d August, they reached the entrance 
of the Slave Lake, after which their progress homeward 
presented no feature of interest, and on 12th Septem- 
ber they arrived in safety at Fort Chepewyan, after an 
absence of 102 days. The importance of this journey 
must be apparent, on considering it in connexion with 
the expedition of Hearne. Both travellers had succeeded 
in reaching the shores of an arctic sea ; and it became 
not only an established fact that there was an ocean of 
great extent in the north of America, but it was rendered 
extremely probable that this sea formed its continuous 
boundary. 

Mackenzie concluded his first journey in September, 1789, 

* Mackeuiie, p, 87. 



Mackenzie's second journey. 133 

and about three years afterward undertook a second expe- 
dition, which proved still more difficult and hazardous, and 
equally important and satisfactory in its results. His object 
was to ascend the Peace River, which rises in the Rocky 
Mountains, and crossing these, to penetrate to that unknown 
river which in his former journey had been the subject of his 
unwearied inquiry. This he conjectured must communicate 
with the sea ; and, pursuing its course, he hoped to reach 
the shores of the Pacific. Setting out accordingly on 10th 
October, 1792, he pushed on to the remotest European 
settlement, where he spent the winter in a traffic for furs 
with the Beaver and Rocky Indians. Having despatched 
six canoes to Fort Chepewyan with the cargo he had col- 
lected, he engaged Imnters and interpreters, and launched 
the canoe in which he had determined to prosecute his dis- 
coveries. Her dimensions were twenty-five feet long within, 
exclusive of the curves of stem and stern, twenty-six inches 
hold, and four feet nine inches beam. She was at the same 
time so light, that two men could carry her three or four 
miles without resting. In this slender vessel they not only 
stowed away their provisions, presents, arms, ammunition, 
and baggage, to the weight of 3000 pounds, but found room 
for seven Europeans, two Indians, and the leader himself. 
On embarking, the winter interpreter left in charge of the 
fort could not refrain from tears when he anticipated the 
dangers they were about to encounter, while they them- 
selves fervently offered up their prayers to Almighty God 
for a safe return. 

The commencement of their voyage was propitious ; and 
under a serene sky, with a keen but healthy air, the bark 
glided through some beautiful scenery. On the west side 
of the river the ground rose in a gently-ascending lawn, 
broken at intervals by abrupt precipices, and extending in 
a rich woodland perspective as far as the eye could reach. 
This magnificent amphitheatre presented groves of poplar 
in every direction, whose openings were enlivened with 
herds of elks and buffaloes ; the former choosing the steeps 
and uplands, the latter preferring the plains. At this time 
the buffaloes were attended by their young ones, which 
frisked about, while the female elks were great with young. 
The whole country displayed an exuberant verdure : the 
trees which bore blossoms were rapidly bursting into 
M 



134 THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 

flower, and the soft velvet rintl of the branches reflected 
the oblique rays of a rising or a setting sun, imparting a 
cheerfulness and brilliancy to the scene, which gladdened 
the heart with the buoyant influences of the season.* After 
a few days the air became colder, the country more deso- 
late, the track of the large grisly bear was discerned on the 
banks, and the weather was occasionally broken by storms 
of thunder and lightning. 

From this time till the 21st of May, the passage was 
attended with difliculties that would have disheartened a 
less energetic leader. The river being broken by frequent 
cascades and dangerous rapids, it was necessary to carry 
the canoe and luggage till they could resume their voyage 
in safety. On their nearer approach to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, the stream, hemmed in between stupendous rocks, 
presented a continuance of frightful torrents and impracti- 
cable cataracts. The dangers to which they had already 
been exposed had greatly disheartened the men, and they 
began to murmur audibly, so that no alternative was left 
but to return. Indeed there was some reason for this irre- 
solution ; by water farther progress was impossil)le, and 
they could only advance over a mountain whose sides were 
broken by sharp jagged rocks, and thickly covered with 
wood. Mackenzie despatched a reconnoitring party, with 
orders to ascend the mountain, and proceed in a straigli*^ 
course from its summit, keeping the line of the river till they 
ascertained that it was navigable. During their absence his 
people repaired the canoe, while he took an altitude, which 
ascertained the latitude to be 56° 8'. At sunset the scouts 
returned by different routes. They had penetrated through 
thick woods, ascended hills, and dived into valleys, till they 
got beyond the rapids, and agreed, that though the difficul- 
ties to be encountered by land were alarming, it was their 
only course. Unpromising as the task appeared, their spirits 
had risen and their murmurs were forgotten ; so that a ket- 
tle of wild rice sweetened with sugar, with the usual even- 
ing regale of rum, renewed their courage ; and, after a 
night's rest, they proceeded at break of day on iheir labo- 
rious journey. 

In the first place, the men cut a road up the mountain 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. l&i, 155, 



PERILS OF THE JOURNEY. 135 

where the trees were smallest, felling some in such a man- 
ucr as to make them fjxli parallel to the road without sepa- 
ratinor them entirely from the stumps, in this way forming 
a kind of railing on either side. The baggage and the 
canoe were then brought from the water-side to the encamp- 
ment, — an undertaking exceedingly perilous, as a single 
false step must have been followed by immersion into the 
river, which flowed here with furious rapidity. Having ac- 
complished this labour, the party breathed a little, and then 
ascended the mountain with the canoe, having the line or 
rope by which it was drawn up doubled, and fastened suc- 
cessively to the stumps left for this purpose, while a man 
at the end hauled it round a tree, holding it on and shifting 
it as they advanced. In this manner the canoe was warped 
up the steep ; and by two in the afternoon every thing had 
been carried to the summit. Men were then despatched to 
cut the road onwards : and the incessant labour of another 
day could only penetrate about three miles, while mountains 
much more elevated raised their snowy summits around in 
every direction. These, however, were at a distance ; and 
another day's exertion brought them through a wood of tall 
pines to the banks of the river above the rapids. Before 
again embarking, Mackenzie left attached to a pole a knife, 
a steel, flint, beads, and other trifles, as a token of amity 
to the natives ; and one of his Indians added a small round 
stick of green wood, chewed at one end in the form of a 
brush, used to pick marrow out of bones, — an instrument 
which he explained to be intended as an emblem to the 
people of a country abounding in animals.* 

They now resumed their voyage, enclosed on all sides by 
mountains whose summits were covered with snow, and 
one of which to the south rose to a majestic height. The 
air became chill ; the water, through which they frequently 
waded, towing or pushing their bark, was intensely cold ; 
and on 3lst May, they reached a point minutely described 
to them before setting out by an old Indian warrior. Here 
the river separated into two streams, one runnino- west- 
north-west, and the other south-south-east. The first of 
these they had been warned to avoid, as it soon lost itself 
in various smaller currents among the mountains ; and the 

* Mackenzie, p. 181., 



136 DESPONDENCY. 

steersman accordingly proceeded into the eastern branch, 
which, though not so broad as the other, was far more 
rapid. The course of their journey now led them through 
many populous beaver-settlements. In some places these 
animals had cut down several acres of large poplars ; and 
they saw multitudes busy from sunrise to sunset erecting 
houses, procuring food, superintending their dikes, and 
going diligently through all the labours of their little com- 
monwealth. Perceiving soon after a smoke in the forest 
which lined the banks, and hearing the sounds of human 
voices in great confusion, they became aware that they 
were near an Indian encampment from which the inhabitants 
were retreating. Accordingly, on approaching the shore, 
two ferocious-looking men sprang from the woods and took 
their station on a rising ground, brandishing their spears 
with loud vociferations. A few words of explanation from 
the interpreter, and some presents, pacified them, and 
Mackenzie made anxious inquiries regarding the nature of 
the country, and the great river which formed the object of 
his search. To his mortification he found that they were 
unacquainted with any river to the westward ; they had just 
arrived over a carrying-place of eleven days from another 
stream, which was nothing else than a large branch of the 
one the expedition was then navigating. Their iron, they 
said, was procured in exchange for beaver and dress moose- 
skins from the people there, who travelled during a moon to 
the country of other tribes living in houses, and these in 
their turn extended their journeys to the ocean ; or, to use 
their disparaging epithet, the Great Stinking Lake, where 
they traded with white people, who came in canoes as large 
as islands. Their knowledge of the country, however, ap- 
peared so vague, that all hope of procuring a guide was 
vain, and the heart of the traveller sank within him as he 
felt that his favourite project was on the point of being 
utterly disconcerted. 

Amid this despondency a faint hope remained that the 
natives, under the influence of suspicion, timidity, or from 
imperfectly understanding the interpreter, had not commu- 
nicated all they knew ; and after a night sleepless from 
anxiety, the traveller rose with the sun to repeat his in- 
quiries. At first nothing satisfactory could be elicited ; but 
suddenly, Mackenzie, who stood beside the interpreters, 



MANNERS OF THE INDIANS. 137 

understood, from the few words he knew of their language, 
that one person mentioned a great river, while he pointed 
significantly to that which lay before them. On a strict 
inquiry, the interpreter, who had been tired of the voyage, 
and of whose fidelity some suspicion was entertained, ac- 
knowledged that the Indian spoke of a large river whose 
course was towards the mid-day sun, a branch of which 
flowed near the source of the stream they were now navi- 
gating. This branch, he c.dded, it would not be difficult 
to reach, there being only three small lakes and as many 
carrying-places on the way to it ; but he also insisted that 
the great river did not discharge itself into the sea.* This 
last assertion was imputed to his ignorance of the country, 
while a rude map, which he delineated with a piece of 
coal on a strip of bark, convinced them that his information, 
so far as it went, was to be relied on. A new ray of hope 
now arose ; and having induced an Indian to go forward as 
a guide to the borders of the small lakes, Mackenzie re- 
sumed his journey on 10th June, promising, if successful 
in his object, to revisit these friendly Indians in two moons. 
These people were of low stature and meager frame, 
owing probably to the difficulty of procuring subsistence ; 
round faces, high cheek-bones, black hair hanging in elf- 
/ocks over their shoulders, and a swarthy yellow com- 
plexion, combined to give them a forbidding aspect ; while 
their garments of beaver, rein-deer, and ground-hog skins, 
dressed with the hair outside, having the tail of this last 
animal hanging down the back, might, when seen at a dis- 
tance, occasion some doubt whether they belonged to the 
human race. Their women were extremely ugly, lustier 
and taller than the men, but much inferior in cleanliness. 
Their warlike weapons were cedar bows, six feet long, with 
a short iron spike at one end, so that they might also be 
used as spears. The arrows were barbed with iron, flint, 
stone, or bone, from two to two feet and a half long, and 
feathered with great neatness. They had two kinds of 
spears, both double-edged, of well-polished iron, and with 
shafts from six to eight feet long. Their knives were of 
iron worked by themselves, and their axes resembled a car- 
penter's adze. They used snares of green skin, nets and 

* Mackenzie, p. 203, 204, 



138 CANOE WRECKED. 

fishing-lines of willow-bark, hooks of small bones, and 
kettles of watape so closely woven as not to leak. Besides 
these they had various dishes of wood and bark, horn and 
wooden spoons and buckets, and leathern and net-work bags. 
Their canoes, of spruce-bark, calculated to hold from two 
to five persons, were propelled by paddles six feet long, with 
the blade shaped like a heart.* 

Pursuing their journey under the direction of the new 
guide, they reached a small lake in latitude 54° 24', which 
Mackenzie considered as the highest or southernmost source 
of the Ungigah or Peace River. They passed two other 
lakes, and again entered the river, the navigation of which, 
from its rapidity ^nd the trees and rocks in its channel, now 
became dangerous. The canoe struck on a sharp rock, 
which shattered the stern, and drove her to the other side, 
where the bow met the same fate ; to complete the disaster, 
she passed at this moment over a cascade, which broke 
several holes in her bottom, and reduced her to a complete 
wreck, lying flat upon the water. All hands now jumped 
out, and clinging desperately to the sides, were hurried 
several hundred yards through a foaming torrent beset with 
sharp rocks, upon which they were every instant in danger 
of being dashed to pieces. Being carried, however, into 
shallow water, where the canoe rested on the stones, they 
were relieved from their perilous situation by their com- 
panions on shore. 

After this escape, a consultation was held regarding their 
future proceedings. Benumbed with cold, and intimidated 
by their recent dangers, the Indians proposed an immediate 
return ; but the remonstrances of their leader, enforced by 
the usual arguments of a hearty meal and an allowance of 
rum, banished their fears. It was next proposed to aban- 
don the wreck, to carry the baggage to the river, which the 
guide affirmed to be at no great distance, and there to con- 
struct a new vessel. But as it was suspected that this rep- 
resentation was not to be relied on, a party was despatched 
to reconnoitre, and brought back a very confused and un- 
promising account of the country. It was therefore de- 
termined to repair the canoe, and proceed as before. For 
this purpose bark was collected, which, with a few pieces 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 205, 206. 



MACKENZIE REACHES THE GREAT RIVER. 139 

of oil-cloth and plenty of gum, restored their shattered boat 
to something like a sea-worthy condition. Her frail state, 
however, rendered it necessary to carry part of the lading 
on men's shoulders along the banks ; and as a road had 
to be opened with hatchets, their progress was extremely 
slow. 

On 16th June, Mr. Mackay and two Indians were des- 
patched with orders to penetrate if possible to the great 
river in the direction indicated by the guide. They suc- 
ceeded ; but returned with a discouraging account of the in- 
terminable woods and deep morasses which intervened. 
These gloomy prospects were increased by the desertion 
of their guide ; but nothing could repress Mackenzie's ar- 
dour. Cutting a passage through the woods, carrying the 
canoe round the rapids and cascades, they held on their slow 
and toilsome way, till at last, after passing a swamp, in many 
places wading to mid-thigh, they enjoyed the satisfaction of 
reaching the bank of the great river, which had been the 
object of so much anxious expectation and protracted hope.* 

Embarking anew, they were borne along by a strong 
current, which, slackening after a short time, allowed them 
to glide gently between banks of high white cliffs, sur- 
mounted with grotesque and singularly-shaped pinnacles. 
After some progress, the party were alarmed by a loud 
whoop from the thick woods ; at the same moment a canoe 
guided by a single savage shot out from the mouth of a 
small tributary stream, and a number of natives, armed 
with bows and arrows, appeared on an adjacent rising 
ground, uttering loud cries, and manifesting by their gestures 
that instant death would be inflicted on any one who landed. 
Every attempt to conciliate them proved unavailing ; and a 
canoe was observed to steal swiftly down the river, with the 
evident design of communicating the alarm and procuring 
assistance. At this critical moment the courage and pru- 
dence of Mackenzie providentially saved his party. He 
landed alone, with two pistols stuck in his belt ; having 
first, however, given orders to one of his Indians to steal 
into the woods with a couple of guns, and to keep near him 
in case of attack. " I had not been long," says he, " in 
my station on the bank, with my Indian in ambush behind me, 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 228. 



140 INTERVIEW WITH THE NATIVES. 

when two of the natives came off in a canoe, but stopped 
when they got within one hundred yards of me. I made 
signs for them to land, and as an inducement displayed 
looking-glasses, beads, and other alluring trinkets. At 
length, but with every mark of extreme apprehension, they 
approached the shore, taking care to turn their canc-e stern 
foremost, and still not venturing to land. I now made them a 
present of some beads, with which they were going to push 
oif, when I renewed my entreaties, and after some time pre- 
vailed on them to come ashore and sit down by me. My 
Indian hunter now thought it right to join me, and created 
some alarm in my new acquaintance. It was, however, 
soon removed, and I had the satisfaction to find- that he and 
these people perfectly understood each other. I instructed 
him to say every thing to them which might tend to sooth 
their fears and win their confidence. I expressed my wish 
to conduct them to our canoe ; but they declined this offer 
and when they observed some of my people coming to- 
wards us, they requested me to let them return, and I was 
so well satisfied with the progress which I had made in my 
intercourse with them, that I did not hesitate a moment in 
complying with their desire. During their short stay they 
observed us, and every thing about us, with a mixture of 
admiration and astonishment. We could plainly perceive 
that their friends received them with great joy on their 
return, and that the articles which they carried back with 
them were examined with a general and eager curiosity : 
they also appeared to hold a consultation which lasted about 
a quarter of an hour, and the result was an invitation to 
come over to them, which we cheerfully accepted. Never- 
theless, on our landing, they betrayed evident signs of con- 
fusion, which arose probably from the quickness of our move- 
ments, as the prospect of a friendly communication had so 
cheered the spirits of the people that they paddled across 
the river with the utmost expedition. The two men who 
had been with us appeared very naturally to possess the 
greatest share of courage on the occasion, and were ready 
to receive us on our landing ; but our demeanour soon dis- 
pelled their apprehensions, and the most familiar communi- 
cation took place between us. When I had secured their 
fjonfidence by the distribution of trinkets among them, and 
jbad treated the children with sugar, I instructed m^ inter* 



AMERICAN COSMOGRAPHY. 141 

preters to collect every necessary information in their power 
to afford me."* 

The intelligence procured from this tribe was discourag- 
ing. They stated, indeed, that the river ran towards the 
mid-day sun, and that at its mouth white people were build- 
ing houses ; but that the navigation was dangerous, and in 
three places absolutely impassable, owing to the falls and 
rapids. The nations through whose territories the route 
lay they represented as ferocious and malignant, especially 
their immediate neighbours, who dwelt in subterranean 
houses. Unappalled by this description, Mackenzie re-em- 
barked, and he was accompanied by a small canoe, with two 
persons who consented to act as guides. Coming to a 
place where some savage-looking people were seen on a 
high ground, it was thought expedient to land, and an ami- 
cable interview took place, which led to important conse- 
quences. On explaining the object of the journey, one of 
the natives, of superior rank and intelligence, drew a sketch 
of the country on a piece of bark, appealing during his labour 
to his companions, and accompanying the rude but perfectly 
intelligible map by details as to their future voyage. He 
described the river as running to the east of south, receiving 
in its course many tributary streams, and broken every six 
or eight leagues by dangerous falls and rapids, six of which 
were altogether impracticable. The carrying-places he 
represented as of great length across mountains. He de- 
picted the lands of three tribes in succession, who spoke 
different languages ; and concluded by saying that beyond 
them he knew nothing of the country, except that it was 
still a great way to the sea, and that there was a lake of 
which the natives did not drink.t 

While the route by water was thus said to be impractica- 
ble, they asserted that the road across the country to the 
ocean was short in comparison, and lay along a valley free 
from wood, and frequently travelled. Other considerations 
combined to recommend this latter course to Mackenzie : 
only thirty days' provisions were left, and the supply pro- 
cured by hunting was very precarious. The ammunition 
was nearly spent ; and if the prosecution of the voyage 
appeared perilous, a return would have been equally so, 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 244 245. t ^^id. p. 253. 



142 OVERLAND JOURNEY. 

Under these circumsiances, it was resolved to abandon the 
canoe, and to penetrate overland to the Western Ocean. 

To arrive at the spot where they were to strike off across 
the country, it was necessary to return a considerable way 
up the river, — a service of great danger, owing to the 
shattered condition of the boat and the hostile dispositions 
of the natives, who were apt to change in an instant from 
the greatest friendliness to unmitigated rage and suspicion. 
The guides deserted them, and it became absolutely neces- 
sary to build a new canoe. She proved better than the old 
one, and they at last reached the point whence they were to 
start overland. """We carried on our backs," says Mac- 
kenzie, " four bags and a half of pemmican, weighing from 
eighty-five to ninety-five pounds each, a case with the in- 
struments, a parcel of goods for presents, weighing ninety 
pounds, and a parcel containing ammunition of the same 
weight ; each of the Canadians had a burden of about 
ninety pounds, with a gun and ammunition, while the In- 
dians had about forty-five pounds' weight of pemmican, be- 
sides their gun, — an obligation with which, owing to their 
having been treated with too much indulgence, they ex- 
pressed themselves much dissatisfied. My own load and 
that of Mr. Mackay consisted of twenty-two pounds of 
pemmican, some rice, sugar, and other small articles, 
amounting to about seventy pounds, besides our arms and 
ammunition. The tube of my telescope was also slung 
across my shoulder ; and owing to the low state of our pro- 
visions, it was determined that we should content ourselves 
with two meals a-day."* 

Thus laden, they struck into the woods, and travelled 
along a tolerably beaten path, arrived before night at some 
Indian tents, where they were joined by an elderly man 
and three other natives. The old man held in his hand a 
spear of European manufacture, like a sergeant's halberd, 
which he stated he had lately received from some people on 
the seacoast, to whom it had been given by white men. He 
added, that those heavily laden did not take more than six 
days to reach the tribes with whom he and his friends bar- 
tered their furs and skins for iron, and that thence it was 
scarcely two days' march to the sea. He recommended 

♦ Macken7Je's Travels, p. 285. 



FEMALE NATIVE OF THE SEAGOAST. 14<i 

also that, while they retired to sleep, two young Indians 
should be sent forward to warn the different tribes whose 
territories they were approaching, — a precaution which had 
the best effects. Another pleasing distinction between their 
present hosts and the other savages whom they had passed 
soon presented itself: when the weary travellers lay doWA 
to rest the Indians took their station at a little distance, and 
began a song in a sweet plaintive tone, unaccompanied by 
any instrument, but with a modulation exceedingly pleasing 
and solemn, not unlike that of church-music. The cir=' 
cumstance may remind the reader of the descriptions of 
American music given by Mr. Meares and Captain Burney, 
which it strikingly corroborates. 

Having procured two guides, they now proceeded through 
an open country sprinkled with cypresses, and joined a 
family of the natives. The father, on hearing their in- 
tention of penetrating to the ocean, pointed to one of his 
wives who was a native of the seacoast ; her appearance 
differed from the females they had hitherto seen. She was 
of low stature, inclined to corpulency, with an oblong face^ 
gray eyes, and a flattish nose. Her garments consisted of a 
tunic covered with a robe of matted bark, fringed round the 
bottom with the beautiful fur of the sea-otter. She wore 
bracelets of brass, copper, and horn, while her hair was 
braided with large blue beads, and her ears and neck adorned 
with the same. With these people age seemed to be an 
object of great veneration ; they carried an old woman by 
turns upon their backs, who was quite blind and infirm. 
The country appeared well peopled, and the natives, though 
at first alarmed, were soon conciliated by the guides. In 
some places they observed chains of small lakes, the valleys 
were verdant and watered with pleasant rivulets, and the 
scenery varied by groves of cypress and poplar, in which 
they were surprised to see no animals. The inhabitants 
indeed seemed to live exclusively on fish ; and the people 
of one small settlement containing thirteen families wer6 
denominated, in the language of the country, Sloa-cUss- 
Dinais, or Red Fish Men. They were healthy looking, and 
more provident, cleanly, and comfortable than the neigh- 
bouring tribes. 

One of Mackenzie's greatest and most frequent perplex- 
ities arose out of the sudden fits of caorice and change of 



144 TERROR OF THE NATIVES. 

purpose which characterize most savages, but none more 
than the Americans. An example of this now occurred : 
the guides, upon whose fideUty the success of the expedition 
mainly depended, were advancing apparently in the most 
contented and friendly manner, when, in a moment, without 
uttering a word, they sprang forward, and disappeared in 
the woods, leaving the party, who were utterly unacquainted 
with the route, in a state bordering on despair.* Pushing 
forward, however, at a hazard, they perceived a house 
situated on a green spot by the edge of a wood, the smoke 
of which curled above the trees, intimating that it was in- 
habited. Mackenzie advanced alone, as his party were too 
much alarmed to second his intrepidity ; and so intent were 
the inhabitants upon their household labours, that he ap- 
proached unperceived. Nothing could exceed the terror 
and confusion occasioned by his sudden appearance. The 
women and children uttered piercing shrieks, and the only 
man about the place sprang out of a back-door with the 
rapidity of a wild-cat, and fled into the woods. Their dis- 
may arose from the belief that they were surprised by ene- 
mies, and would be instantly put to death ; an atrocity too 
common among the Indian tribes. The conduct of the man 
who had fled was amusing : by degrees he crept suflficiently 
near to watch the party ; and on observing the kindness with 
which the women and children were treated, came cautiously 
within speaking distance. His eyes were still staring in 
his head. No assurances of the interpreters or the women 
could persuade him to return ; no beads, knives, or presents 
of any kind had the effect of restoring his confidence. On 
being approached, he kept dodging about behind large trees, 
brandishing his bow and arrows, grinning hideously, and 
displaying a variety of strange antics, till at last, in one of 
his paroxysms, he dived into a thicket and disappeared. 
As suddenly he emerged in an opposite quarter, and becom- 
ing pacified, after a succession of parleys, agreed to ac- 
company them as a guide. 

On advancing from this station, they travelled over an ele- 
vated tract, and at length gained the summit of a hill, af- 
fording a view of a range of mountains covered with snow; 
which, according to the guide, terminated in the ocean. 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p 302. 



BEAUTIFUL SCENERY. 145 

Passing along the borders of several small lakes, through 
a swampy country, they arrived at a lodge of natives, who 
received them with hospitality, and minutely scrutinized 
their appearance. The hair of the women was tied in large 
loose knots over the ears, and plaited with great neatness 
from the division of the head, so as to be included in the 
knots : some had their tresses adorned with beads, produc- 
ing a very graceful effect ; while the men were clothed in 
leather, their hair nicely combed, their complexion fair, and 
their skin cleanly. One young man was at least six feet 
four inches in height, with a prepossessing countenance, and 
affable and dignified manners. All, not excepting the chil- 
dren, carried a burden proportioned to their strength, con- 
sisting of beaver-coating and parchment, skins of the otter, 
marten, bear, and lynx, besides dressed moose-skins. These 
last they procured from the Rocky Mountain Indians ; and 
for the purposes of trade the people of the seacoast preferred 
them to any others. 

They now continued their journey through a beautiful 
valley, watered by a gentle rivulet, to a range of hills w^hich 
they ascended till surrounded by snow so firm and compact 
that it crunched under their feet. Before them lay a stu- 
pendous mountain, vi^hose summit, clad with the same spot- 
less coronet, was partly lost in the clouds. Between it and 
the route they were to follow flowed a broad river ; and de- 
scending from their present elevated ground, they plunged 
into woods of lofty and umbrageous cedars and alder-trees.* 
As they got lower into these primeval forests they were 
sensible of an entire change of climate. The guides pointed 
out to them, through the openings in the dark foliage, the 
river which flowed in the distance, and a village on its 
banks, while beneath their feet the ground was covered 
with berries of an excellent flavour, and completely ripe. 
The effect of sunset upon this noble scenery was strikingly 
beautiful ; but their admiration was interrupted by the de- 
campment of their guides, who, as the shades of evening 
began to fall, pushed forward at such a pace that the party 
were soon lefl without conductors in darkness and uncer- 
tainty. The men, who were much fatigued, now proposed 
to take up their quarters for the night ; but their indefatiga- 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 316, 317, 

N 



140 SALMON FISHERY. 

ble leader groped his way forward, and at length, arriving^ 
at the edge of the wood, perceived the light of several fires. 
On coming up he entered a hut where the people were em- 
ployed in cooking fish, threw down his burden, and shook 
hands with the inmates, who did not show any surprise, but 
gave him to understand by signs that he should go to a large 
house, erected on upright posts at some distance from the 
ground. A broad piece of timber, with steps cut in it, led 
to a scaffolding on a level with the floor ; and ascending 
these, the traveller entered the apartment, passed three fires 
at equal distances in the middle of the room, and was cor- 
dially received by several people seated on a wide board at 
the upper end. Mackenzie took his place beside one whom, 
from his dignified look, he took to be the chief. ' Soon after 
the rest of the party arrived, and placed themselves near 
him ; upon which the chief arose and brought a quantity of 
roasted salmon. Mats were then spread, and the fish placed 
before them. When the meal was concluded, their host 
made signs which they supposed to convey a desire that 
they should sleep under the same roof with himself ; but, as 
his meaning was not sufficiently plain, they prepared to 
bivouac without. Every thing was done to render their re- 
pose agreeable : a fire was kindled, boards placed that they 
might not sleep on the bare ground, and two delicate dishes 
of salmon-roes, beat up to the consistency of thick cream, 
and mixed with gooseberries and wood-sorrel, were brought 
for supper. On awaking in the morning, they found all 
their wants anticipated in the same hospitable manner ; a 
fire was already blazing, a plentiful breakfast of roasted 
salmon and dried roes was provided, and a regale of rasp- 
berries, whortleberries, and gooseberries finished the meal.* 
Salmon was so abundant in this river that the people had 
a constant supply. They had formed across the stream an 
embankment for placing fishing machines, which were dis- 
posed both above and below it. For some reason, however, 
they would permit no near inspection of the weir ; but it 
appeared to be four feet above the water, and was constructed 
of alternate layers of gravel and small trees, fixed in a 
slanting position. Beneath it were placed machines into 
which the salmon fell in attempting to leap over ; and on 

* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 318-S20. 



SUPERSTITIONS. 147 

either side was a large timber frame six feet above the water, 
in which passages were left leading directly into the ma- 
chines, while at the foot of the fall dipping nets were suc- 
cessfully employed. These people were observed to indulge 
an extreme superstition regarding their fish, refusing to 
taste flesh, and appearing to consider such an act as pollu- 
tion. One of their dogs, having swallowed a bone which 
the travellers left, was beaten by his master till he disgorged 
it ; and a bone of a deer being thrown into the river, a 
native dived, brought it up, consigned it to the fire, and 
carefully washed his hands. They would not lend their 
canoes for the use of the party, having observed some 
venison which they concluded was to be stowed on board ; 
and they alleged that the fish would immediately smell it and 
leave them. Although generous in furnishing the strangers 
with as much roasted fish as they could consume, they 
would part with none in a raw state. They believed salmon 
to have an invincible antipathy to iron, and were afraid that, 
if given raw to the white men, they might take serious of- 
fence at being boiled in a vessel of this ominous metal. In 
other respects nothing could exceed their friendliness ; and 
at a neighbouring village belonging to the same tribe, the 
reception of Mackenzie was, if possible, still more kind. 
The son of the chief took from his own shoulders a beauti- 
ful robe of sea-otter skin-, and threw it over the traveller, 
while the father expressed the utmost satisfaction in being 
presented with a pair of scissors to clip his beard, — a pur- 
pose to which, with the eager delight of a child, he instantly 
applied them. 

The houses in this village were constructed in the same 
way as those already described, and remind us of the lively 
account given by Mr. Meares. At a little distance, Mac- 
kenzie observed some singular wooden buildings, which he 
conjectured to be temples. They consisted of oblong 
squares, about twenty feet high by eight broad, formed of 
thick cedar-planks beautifully joined. Upon these were 
painted hieroglyphics and figures of various animals, with 
a remarkable degree of correctness. In the midst of the 
village was a large building, at first supposed to be the un- 
finished frame-work of a house. Its dimensions, however, 
were far greater than those of an ordinary dwelling, the 
ground-plot being fifty feet by forty-five, each end formed 



148 MACKENZIE REACHES THE SEA. 

by four stout posts, fixed perpendicularly in the earth. The 
corner posts were unornamented, and supported a beam of 
the whole length, having three intermediate props on each 
side. Two centre posts at each end, about two feet and a 
half in diameter, were carved into colossal human figures, 
supporting ridge-poles on their heads ; the hands were 
placed on the knees, as if they felt difliculty in sustaining 
the weight, while the figures opposite to them stood in an 
easy attitude, with their hands resting on their hips. The 
posts, poles, and figures were painted red and black, 
and the carving was executed with a truth and boldness 
which bespoke no little advancement in sculpture.* In the 
mechanical arts they had arrived at considerable perfection. 
The chief's canoe was of cedar, forty-five feet long, four 
wide, and three feet and a half deep. It was painted black, 
and ornamented with drawings of various kinds of fish in 
white upon the dark ground, and the gunwale, both fore 
and aft, was neatly inlaid with the teeth of the sea-otter. 
In this vessel, according to the old chief's account, he un- 
dertook, about ten winters before, a voyage towards the 
mid-day sun, having with him forty of his subjects ; on 
which occasion he met with two large vessels full of white 
men, the first he had seen, by whom he was kindly received. 
Mackenzie very plausibly conjectured that these might be 
the ships of Captain Cook. 

It was now the 18th of July, and, surrounded by friendly 
natives, with plenty of provisions, pleasant weather, and the 
anticipation of speedily reaching the great object of their 
wishes, they resumed their voyage in a large canoe, accom- 
panied by four of the Indians. The navigation of the river, 
as they approached the ocean, was interrupted by rapids and 
cascades ; but their skill in surmounting these impediments 
was now considerable, and on the 20th, after a passage of 
thirty-six miles, they arrived at the mouth of the river, 
which discharges itself by various smallei channels into an 
arm of the Pacific Ocean. The purpose of the expedition 
was now completed, and its indefatigable leader painted in 
large characters, upon the face of the rock under whose 
shelter they had slept, this simple memorial : " Alexander 
Mackenzie, from Canada by land, the twenty-second of July, 

* Mackeime's Travels, p. 331 



FRANKLIN^S FIRST JOURNEY. 149 

one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three." The in- 
scription was only written in vermillion, and has probably 
long ago been washed away by the fury of the elements ; but 
the name of Mackenzie is enduringiy consecrated in the 
annals of discovery, as the first person who penetrated from 
sea to sea across the immense continent of North America. 
His return by the same route it is unnecessary to pursue. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Discoveries along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean. 

First and Second Expeditions of Franklin— Voyage of Captain Beechey. 

The discoveries of Hearne and Mackenzie established the 
great fact that there is a northern coast in America, washed 
by the Arctic Ocean, which forms, in all probability, its con- 
tinuous boundary ; and they demonstrated the practicability 
of reaching this limit by passing over the vast plains which 
stretch northward from Canada and Hudson's Bay. The 
voyages of Captain Parrv, also, which have been already 
detailed,* fully corroborated this opinion ; and it appeared 
evident that another expedition, properly conducted, might 
reach this shore, and more fully examine its whole extent. 
Such an expedition, accordingly, sailed from England on the 
23d of May, 1820, its command being intrusted to Lieute- 
nant, now Sir John Franklin, assisted by Dr. Richardson, 
an able mineralogist and natural historian. During the first 
portion of their journey, they followed the chain of the great 
lakes, instead of the more eastern track pursued by Hearne, 
and having descended the Coppermine River, arrived on 
2 1st July, at the shore of the Arctic Ocean, where they 
commenced their career of discovery. Important as were 
the particulars of their survey, when considered in relation 
to the furtherance of geographical science, a minute detail 
is here unnecessary, and we shall attempt only a general 
sketch. 



* Polar Seas and Regions, p. 202-259. 

N2 



150 VOYAGE ALONG THE ARCTIC SHORES. 

Paddling along the coast to the eastward, on the inside 
of a crowded range of islands, they encamped on shore 
after a run of thirty-seven miles, in which they experienced 
little interruption, and saw only a small iceberg in the dis- 
tance, though that beautiful luminous effulgence emitted 
from the congregated ices, and distinguished by the name 
of the ice-blink, was distinctly visible to the northward. 
The coast was found of moderate height, easy of access, and 
covered with vegetation ; but the islands were rocky and 
barren, presenting high cliffs of a columnar structure. In 
continuing their voyage, the dangers which beset a naviga- 
tor in these dreadftil polar solitudes thickened gloomily 
around them : the coast became broken and steril, and at 
length rose into a high and rugged promontory, against 
which some large masses of ice had drifted, threatening 
destruction to their slender canoes. In attempting to round 
this cape the wind rose, an awful gloom involved the sky, 
and the thunder burst over their heads, compelling them to 
encamp till the storm subsided. They then, at the immi- 
nent risk of having the canoes crushed by the floating ice, 
doubled the dreary promontory, which they denominated 
Cape Barrow, and entered Detention Harbour, where they 
landed. Around them the land consisted of mountains of 
granite, rising abruptly from the water's edge, destitute of 
vegetation, and attaining an elevation of 1400 or 1500 feet ; 
seals and small deer were the only animals seen, and the 
former were so shy that all attempts to approach within 
shot were unsuccessful. With the deer the hunters were 
more fortunate : but these were not numerous ; and while 
the ice closed gradually around them, and their little stock 
of provisions, consisting of pemmican and cured beef, every 
day diminished, it was impossible not to regard their situa- 
tion with uneasiness. Rounding Cape Kater, they entered 
Arctic Sound, and sent a party to explore a river upon the 
banks of which they expected to find an Esquimaux encamp- 
ment. All, however, was silent, desolate, and deserted : 
even these hardy natives, bred amid the polar ices, had 
removed from so barren a spot, and the hunters returned 
with two small deer and a brown bear ; the latter animal so 
lean and sickly-looking that the men decUned eating it ; but 
the officers boiled its paws, and found them excellent. 

Proceeding along the eastern shore of Arctic Sound, to 



TERMINATION OF THE VOYAGE. 151 

which they gave the name of Bankes's Peninsula, the expe- 
dition made its painful way along a coast indented by bays, 
and in many places studded with islands, till on 10th 
August they reached the open sea ; and sailing, as they 
imagined, between the continent and a large island, found 
to their deep disappointment that, instead of an open chan- 
nel, they were in the centre of a vast bay. The state of 
the expedition now called for the most serious consideration 
upon the part of their commander. So much time had 
already been spent in exploring the sounds and inlets, that 
all hope of reaching Repulse Bay was vain ; both canoes 
had sustained material injury ; the fuel was expended ; their 
provisions were sufficient only for three days ; the appear- 
ances of the setting in of the arctic winter were too unequi- 
vocal to be mistaken ; the deer, which had hitherto supplied 
them with fresh meat, would, it was well known, soon dis- 
appear ; the geese and other aquatic birds were already seen 
winging their way to the southward ; while the men, who 
had up to this moment displayed the utmost courage, began 
to look disheartened, and to entertain serious apprehensions 
for their safety. Under these circumstances, Franklin, with 
the concurrence of his officers, determined not to endanger 
the lives of his people by a farther advance ; and, aifter 
spending four days in a minute survey of the bay, it was 
resolved to return by Hood's River to Fort Enterprise. 
Franklin's researches, as far as prosecuted at this time, 
favoured the opinion of those who contended for the practi- 
cability of a north-west passage. It appeared probable that 
the coast ran east and west in the latitude assigned to Mac- 
kenzie's River, and little doubt could, in his opinion, be 
entertained regarding the existence of a continued sea in 
that direction. The portion over which they passed was 
navigable for vessels of any size ; and the ice met with after 
quitting Detention Harbour would not have arrested a strong 
boat, while the chain of islands aiforded shelter from all 
heavy seas, and there were good harbours at convenient 
distances. Having with much severe privation completed 
their course from Point Turnagain in Melville Bay to the 
entrance of Hood's River, they ascended as high as the first 
rapid and encamped, terminating here their voyage on the 
Arctic Sea, during which they had gone over 650 geogra- 
phical miles. 



162 LAND JOURNEY. 

On the prospect of commencing their land journey the 
Canadians could not conceal their satisfaction ; and the 
evening previous to their departure was passed in talking 
over their past adventures, and congratulating each other 
in having at length turned their backs upon the sea, — 
little anticipating that the most painful and hazardous por- 
tion of the expedition was yet to come. Before setting off, 
an assortment of iron materials, beads, looking-glasses, and 
other articles, were put up in a conspicuous situation for 
the Esquimaux, and the English union was planted on the 
loftiest sand-hill, where it might be seen by any ships pass- 
ing in the offing. Here also was deposited in a tin box a 
letter containing an outline of the proceedings of the expe- 
dition, the latitude and longitude of the principal places, 
and the course intended to be pursued towards Slave Lake. 
They now proceeded up the river in their canoes, and though 
upon a short allowance of provisions, the produce of their 
nets and fowling-pieces furnished for a few days enough to 
ward off absolute want, but they were often on the very 
brink of it. Their progress was much interrupted by shoals 
and rapids, and one evening they encamped at the lower end of 
a narrow chasm, the walls of which were upwards of 200 feet 
high, and in some places only a few yards apart. Into this 
the river precipitates itself, forming two magnificent cas- 
cades, to which they gave the name of Wilberforce Falls. 
On taking a survey of its farther course from a neighbour- 
ing hill, it was discovered to be so rapid and shallow that 
all progress in the large canoes seemed impossible. Two 
smaller boats were therefore constructed ; and on 1st Sep- 
tember, they set off with the intention of proceeding in as 
direct a line as possible to the part of Point Lake opposite 
their spring encampment, — a distance which appeared com- 
paratively trifling, being only 149 miles. Their luggage 
consisted of ammunition, nets, hatchets, ice-chisels, astro- 
nomical instruments, clothing-blankets, three kettles, and 
the two canoes, each so light as to be carried easily by a 
single man. But disaster attacked them in their very first 
stage. A storm of snow came on, accompanied by a high 
wind, against which it was difficult to carry the canoes, 
that were damaged by the falls of those who bore them. 
The ground was covered with small stones, and much pain 
was endured by the carriers, whose soft moose-skin shoes 



FAILURE OF PROVISIONS. 153 

were soon cut through. The cold was intense ; and on 
encamping they looked in vain for wood ; a fire of moss 
was all they could procure, which served them to cook 
their supper, but gave so little heat that they were glad to 
creep under their blankets.* 

Having ascended next morning one of the highest hills, 
they ascertained that the river took a westerly course, and 
Franklin, thinking that to follow it farther would lead to a 
more tedious journey than their exhausted strength could 
endure, determined to quit its banks and make directly for 
Point Lake. Emerging, therefore, from the valley, they 
crossed a barren country, varied only by marshy levels and 
small lakes. The weather was fine, but unfortunately 
no berry-bearing plants were found, the surface being 
covered in the more humid spots with a few grasses, and 
in other places with some gray melancholy hchens. On 
encamping, the last piece of pemmican, or pounded flesh, 
was distributed, with a little arrow-root, for supper. The 
evening was warm ; but dark clouds overspread the sky, 
and they experienced those sudden alternations of climate 
which occur in the polar latitudes at this season. At mid- 
night it rained in torrents ; but towards morning a snow- 
storm arose, accompanied by a violent gale. During the 
whole day the storm continued, and not having the comfort 
of a fire the men remained in bed, but the tents were frozen ; 
around them the snow had drifted to the depth of three feet, 
and even within lay several inches thick on their blankets. 
Though the storm had not abated any longer delay was im- 
possible, for they knew every hour would increase the 
intensity of an arctic winter ; and though faint from fasting, 
and with their clothes stiffened by frost, it was absolutely 
necessary to push forward. They suffered much in pack- 
ing the frozen tents and bedclothes, and could hardly keep 
their hands out of their fur mittens. On attempting to 
move, Franklin was seized with a fainting fit, occasioned 
by hunger and exhaustion, and on recovering refused to eat 
a morsel of portable soup, which was immediately prepared 
for him, as it had to be drawn from the only remaining 
meal of the party. The people, however, kindly crowded 
round, and overcame his reluctance. The effect of eating 
was his rapid recovery ; and the expedition moved on. 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 399 



154 RIVER CONGECATHAWHACHAGA. 

Disaster now crowded on disaster. The wind rose so . 
high, that those who carried the canoes were frequently 
blown down, and one of the boats was so much shattered 
as to be rendered unserviceable. The ground was covered 
with snow ; and though the swamps were frozen, yet the 
ice was often not sufficiently strong ; so that they plunged 
in knee-deep. A fire, however, was made of the bark and 
timbers of the broken canoe ; and after having fasted three 
days, their last meal of portable soup and arrow-root was 
cooked. Each man's allowance at this melancholy dinner 
was exceedingly scanty ; but it allayed the pangs of hunger, 
and encouraged them to press forward at a quicker rate. 
They had now reached a more hilly country, strewed with 
large stones, and covered with gray lichen, well known to 
the Canadians by its name tripe de roche. In cases of ex- 
tremity, it is boiled and eaten ; but its taste is nauseous, its 
quality purgative, and it sometimes produces an intolerable 
griping and loathing. The party, not being aware of this, 
gathered a considerable quantity. A few partridges also 
had been shot; and at night some willows were dug up 
from under the snow, with which they lighted a lire and 
cooked their supper. 

Next day they came to Cracroft's River, flowing to the 
■westward over a channel of large stones, that rendered it 
impossible to cross in the canoe. No alternative v/as left but 
to attempt a precarious passage over some rocks at a rapid ; 
and in eifecting this some of the men, losing their balance, 
slipped into the water. They were instantly rescued by their 
companions ; but so intense was the frost, that their drenched 
clothes became caked with ice, and they suffered much 
during the remainder of the day's march. The hunters had 
fallen in with some partridges, which they shot, and they 
found enough of roots to make a fire ; so that their supper, 
though scanty, was comparatively comfortable. Next morn- 
ing they pushed forward with ardour, and passed the river 
Congecathawhachaga of Mr. Hearne. The country which 
lay before them was hilly, and covered with snow to a great 
depth. The sides of the hills were traversed by sharp an- 
gular rocks, where the drifted snow, filling up the interstices, 
presented a smooth but fallacious surface, which often gave 
way and precipitated them into the chasms with their heavy 
loads. In this painful and arduous manner they struggled 



PROVIDENTIAL SUPPLY* 155 

fbrwa/d several days, feeding on the tripe de roche, which 
was so frozen to the rocks that their hands were benumbed 
before a meal could be collected, and so destitute of nutri- 
tive juices that it allayed hunger only for a very short time. 
At length reaching the summit of a hill, they, to their great 
delight, beheld a herd of musk-oxen feeding in the valley 
below ; an instant halt was made, the best hunters were 
called out, and while they proceeded with extreme caution 
in a circuitous route, their companions watched their pro- 
ceedings with intense anxiety. When near enough to open 
their fire, the report reverberated through the hills, and one 
of the largest cows was seen to fall. " This success," says 
Franklin, in that simple and beautiful account of his journey 
which any change of language would only weaken, " infused 
spirit into our starving party. The contents of its stoniach 
were devoured upon the spot ; and the raw intestines, which 
were next attacked, were pronounced by the most delicate 
of the party to be excellent. A few willows, whose tops 
were seen peeping through the snow in the bottom of the 
valley, were quickly grubbed, the tents pitched, and supper 
cooked and devoured with avidity. It was the sixth day 
since we had had a good meal. I do not think that we 
witnessed, through the course of our journey, a more strik- 
ing proof of the wise dispensation of the Almighty, and of 
the weakness of our own judgment, than on this day. We 
had considered the dense fog which prevailed throughout the 
morning as almost the greatest inconvenience which could 
have befallen us, since it rendered the air extremely cold, 
and prevented us from distinguishing any distant object 
towards which our course could be directed. Yet this very 
darkness enabled the party to get to the top of the hill, 
which bounded the valley wherein the musk-oxen were 
grazing, without being perceived. Had the herd discovered 
us and taken alarm, our hunters, in their present state of 
debility, would in all probability have failed in approaching 
them."* 

On the following day a strong southerly wind blowing 
with a snow-drift, they took a day's rest, and as only enough 
remained of the musk-ox to serve for two days, they con- 
tented themselves with a single meal. Next mornings 

* Franklin's Journey, vol. iv. p. 13, small edition of 1829 



156 SUFFERINGS FROM FAMINE. 

though the gale had not diminished, they pushed forward, 
and notwithstanding their rest and recent supply of animal 
food, the whole party felt greater weakness than they had 
hitherto experienced. The weather was hazy, but after an 
hour's march the sky cleared, and they found themselves on 
the borders of a lake, of which they could not discern the 
termination in either direction. In these circumstances they 
travelled along its banks to the westward, in search of a 
crossing-place. Credit, one of the Canadians, left the party 
in hopes of falling in with deer, but did not return ; and on 
encamping in the evening, hungry and fatigued, they had to 
divide for supper a single partridge and some tripe de roche. 
This weed from the first had been unpalatable, but now 
became insupportably nauseous, and began in many to pro- 
duce severe pains and bowel complaints, especially in Mr. 
Hood, one of the young officers attached to the expedition. 
This solitary partridge was the last morsel of animal food 
that remained ; and they turned with deep anxiety to the 
hope of catching some fish in the lake, but discovered that 
the persons intrusted with them had improvidently thrown 
away three of the nets and burnt the floats on leaving Hood's 
River. Things now began to look very gloomy ; and as the 
men were daily getting weaker, it was judged expedient to 
lighten their burdens of every thing except ammunition, 
clothing, and the instruments necessary to guide them on 
their way. The dipping-needle, the azimuth compass, the 
magnet, a large thermometer, and the few books they car- 
ried were therefore deposited at this encampment, after 
they had torn out from these last the tables necessary for 
working the latitude and longitude. Rewards also were 
promised by Franklin to such of the party as should kill any 
animals, and in the morning they prepared to go forward. 

At this moment a fine trait of disinterestedness occurred : 
as the officers assembled round a small lire, enduring an 
intense degree of hunger which they had no means of satis- 
fying, Perrault, one of the Canadians, presented each of 
them with a piece of meat out of a little store which he 
had saved from his allowance. " It was received," says 
Franklin, " with great thankfulness, and such an instance 
of self-denial and kindness filled our eyes with tears." 
Pressing forward to a river issuing from the lake, they met 
their comrade Credit, and received the joyful intelligence 



CANOE SWAMPED. 157 

that he had killed two deer. One of these was immediately 
cut up and prepared for breakfast ; and having sent some 
of the party for the other, the rest proceeded down the river, 
which was about 300 yards broad, in search of a place to 
cross. Having chosen a spot where the current was smooth, 
immediately above a rapid, Franklin and two Canadian 
boatmen, St. Germain and Belanger, pushed from the shore. 
The breeze was fresh, and the current stronger than they 
imagined, so that they ppproached the very edge of the 
rapid ; and Belanger, employing his paddle to steady the 
canoe, lost his balance, and overset the bark in the middle 
of it. The party clung to its side, and reaching a rock 
where the stream was but waist-deep, kept their footing till 
the canoe was emptied of water, after which Belanger held 
it steady while St. Germain replaced Franklin in it and 
dexterously leaped in himself. Such was their situation, 
that if the man who stood on the rock had raised his foot 
they would have been lost. His friends therefore were 
compelled to leave him, and after a second disaster, in which 
the canoe struck, and was as expeditiously righted as before, 
they reached the opposite bank. Meanwhile Belanger suf- 
fered extremely, immersed to his middle, and enduring 
intense cold. He called piteously for relief, and St. Ger- 
main, re-embarking, attempted to reach him, but was hurried 
down the rapid, and on coming ashore was so benumbed 
as to be incapable of further exertion. A second effort, 
but equally unsuccessful, was made by Adam : they then 
tried to carry out a line formed of the slings of the men's 
loads, but it broke, and was carried down the stream. At 
last, when he was almost exhausted, the canoe reached him 
with a small cord of one of the remaining nets, and he was 
dragged to shore quite insensible. On being stripped, rolled 
in blankets, and put to bed between two men, he recovered. 
During these operations) Franklin was left alone upon the 
bank, and it seemed a matter of the utmost doubt whether 
he should be ever rejoined by his companions. " It is im- 
possible," says he, " to describe my sensations as I witnessed 
the various unsuccessful attempts to relieve Belanger. The 
distance prevented my seeing distinctly what was going on, 
and I continued pacing up and down the rock on which I 
stood, regardless of the coldness of my drenched and stiffen 
ing garments. The canoe, in every attempt to reach him, 
O 



158 DESOLATE SITUATION. 

was hurried down the rapid, and was lost to view among 
the rocky islets with a fury which seemed to threaten instant 
destruction ; once indeed I fancied that I saw it overwhelmed 
in the waves ; such an event would have been fatal to the 
whole party. Separated as I was from my companions, 
without gun, ammunition, hatchet, or the means of making a 
fire, and in wet clothes, my doom would have been speedily 
sealed. My companions, too, driven to the necessity of 
coasting the lake, must have sunk under the fatigue of 
rounding its innumerable arms and bays, which, as we 
learned afterward from the Indians, are extensive. By the 
goodness of Providence, however, we were spared at that 
time, and some of us have been permitted to offer up our 
thanksgiving in a civilized land for the signal deliverance we 
then and afterward experienced."* 

On setting out next morning, Perrault brought in a fine 
male deer, which raised the spirits of the party, as it secured 
them in provisions for two days ; and they trusted to sup- 
port themselves for a third on the skin which they carried 
with them., Having ascended the Willingham Mountains, 
they entered upon a rugged country intersected by deep ra- 
vines, the passage of which was so difficult that they could 
only make ten miles with great fatigue. The deer was now 
picked to the last morsel, and they ate pieces of the singed 
hide with a little tripe de roche. At other times this meal 
might have sufficed ; but, exhausted by slender food and 
continued toil, their appetites had become ravenous. Hith- 
erto events had been so mercifully ordered that in their ut- 
most need some little supply in the tripe de roche had never 
failed them ; but it was the will of God that their confidence 
should be yet more strongly tried ; for they now entered upon 
a level country covered with snow, where even this misera- 
ble lichen was no longer to be found ; and a bed of Iceland 
moss, which was boiled for supper, proved so bitter that 
none of the party, though enduring the extremities of hun- 
ger, could taste more than a few spoonfuls. Another dis- 
tress now attacked them : the intensity of the cold in- 
creased, while they became less fit to endure it. Their 
blankets did not suffice to keep them warm, and the slightest 
breeze pierced through their debilitated frames. "The 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 410, 411. 



INSUBORDINATION. 159 

reader," says Franklin, " will probably be desirous to know 
how we passed our time in such a comfortless situation. 
The first operation after encamping was to thaw our frozen 
shoes, if a sufficient fire could be made ; dry ones were then 
put on. Each person then wrote his notes of the daily oc- 
currences, and evening prayers were read. As soon as sup- 
per was prepared it was eaten, generally in the dark, and 
we went to bed and kept up a cheerful conversation until 
our blankets were thawed by the heat of our bodies, and we 
had gathered sufficient warmth to enable us to fall asleep. 
On many nights we had not even the luxury of going to bed 
in dry clothes ; for, when the fire was insufficient to dry 
our shoes, we dared not venture to pull them off, lest they 
should freeze so hard as to be unfit to put on in the morn 
i.ng, and therefore inconvenient to carry."* 

Hunger, fatigue, and disappointment began now to have 
a calamitous effect upon the tempers of the men. One, who 
carried the canoe, after several severe falls, threw down his 
burden, and obstinately refused to resume it. It was ac- 
cordingly given to another, who proved stronger, and pushed 
forward at so rapid a rate that Mr. Hood, whose weakness 
was now extreme, could not keep up with them ; and as 
Franklin attempted to pursue and stop them, the whole 
party were separated. Dr. Richardson, who had remained 
behind to gather tripe de roche, joined him, and on advanc- 
ing they found the men encamped among some willows, 
where they had found some pieces of skin and a few bones 
of deer which had been devoured by the wolves. On these 
they had made a meal, having burnt and pounded the bones, 
boiled the skin, and added their old shoes to the mess. 
With this no fault could be found ; but on questioning the 
person to whom the canoe had been intrusted, it was dis- 
covered that he had left the boat behind, it having, as he 
said, been broken by a fall and rendered entirely useless. 

To the infatuated obstinacy of the men m refusing to re- 
trace their steps and fetch it, even in its shattered state, is 
to be ascribed much of the distress of their subsequent 
journey. Every argument and entreaty seemed entirely 
thrown away ; and they had apparently lost all hope of being 
preserved. When the hunters, who had been out for some 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 414. 



160 THE COPPERMINE RIVER. 

time, did not make their appearance, they became furious at 
the idea of having been deserted, and throwing down their 
bundles, declared they would follow them at all hazards, and 
leave the weakest to keep up as they best could. The re- 
monstrances of the officers at length opened their minds to 
the madness of such a scheme ; and on encamping in the 
evening, they found some pines seven or eight feet high, 
which furnished a comfortable fire, when they made their 
supper on tripe de roche. Next morning a herd of deer 
came in sight, and they killed five, — a supply which, con- 
sidering the extremity of hunger and despair to which they 
were reduced, was especially providential. It was evident 
that He, without whom not a sparrow falls to the ground, 
was with them in their extremity of distress ; and, casting 
themselves upon his care, every heart expanded with hope 
and gratitude. 

The Canadians now earnestly petitioned for a day's rest. 
They pleaded their recent sufferings, and that the enjoy 
ment of two substantial meals, after eight days' famine, 
would enable them to press forward more vigorously. The 
flesh, the skins, and even the stomachs of the deer were 
accordingly equally divided among the party, and some of 
them suffered severely from too free an indulgence in the 
use of this food after so long an abstinence. Next morning 
the party resumed their journey, and after a walk of three 
miles came to the Coppermine River. Its current was 
strong, but with a canoe there would have been no difficulty 
in crossmg ; and the reckless folly of the men in abandon- 
ing their only means of transport was now brought strongly 
to their mind. No ford could be discovered, and the plan 
was suggested of framing a vessel of willows, covered with 
the canvass of the tent ; but the most experienced boatmen 
declared the willows were too small to bear the weight ; and 
no pines could be found. Nothing remained but to resume 
their march along the borders of the lake ; and looking out 
eagerly, but in vain, for some fordable place, they encamped 
at the east end. Anxious to adopt every possible means 
for preserving the party, Franklin sent Mr. Back forward 
with the interpreters to hunt. He was directed to halt at 
the first pines and construct a raft ; and if his hunters had 
killed animals sufficient to provision them, he was to cross 
immediately and send the Indians with supplies of meat to 
the party behind. 



A RAFT CONSTRUCTED. 161 

At this time it was discovered that two of the men had 
stolen part of the officers' provision, though it had been 
doled out with the strictest impartiality, and they saw their 
leaders suffering more acutely than themselves. To punish 
this was impossible, except by the threat that they should for- 
feit their wages, which produced little effect. Despondency 
had deeply seized upon the party, and in the morning strict 
orders could not prevent them from straggling in search of 
the remains of animals ; in consequence of which much 
time was lost in halting, and ammunition in firing guns to 
collect them. The snow, however, had disappeared, and 
pressing forward with more alacrity, they came to an arm 
of the lake running north-east. The idea of making the 
long circuit round it was distressing, and having halted to 
consult what was to be done, some one discovered in a cliff 
the carcass of a deer which had fallen into a chasm. It 
was quite putrid, but even in that state appeared delicious, 
and a fire being kindled, a large portion was rapidly de 
voured ; while the men, cheered by this unexpected break- 
fast, regained their confidence, and requested leave to return 
to the rapid, insisting on the practicability of making a suf- 
ficiently strong raft of willows, though they had formerly 
pronounced it impossible. Their advice was followed ; and 
having sent off Augustus, one of the interpreters, to inform 
Mr. Back of this change of plan, they commenced their 
retrograde movement, and encamped at night in a deep val- 
ley among some large willows, where they supped on the 
remains of the putrid deer. 

Next day they regained the rapids, commenced cutting 
willows for the raft, and a reward of 300 livres was prom- 
ised by Franklin to the person who should convey a line 
across the river strong enough to manage the raft and trans- 
port the party. The willows when cut were bound into 
fagots, and the work completed ; but the greenness of the 
wood rendered it heavy, and incapable of supporting more 
than one man at a time. Still they hoped to be able to 
cross ; but all depended on getting a line carried to the oppo- 
site bank, through a current 130 yards wide, strong, deep, 
and intensely cold. Belanger and Benoit, the two strongest 
men of the party, repeatedly attempted to take the raft over, 
but for want of oars were driven back. The tent-staves 
were then tied together, and formed a strong.pole; but it 
2 



162 ACCUMULATED SUFFERINGS. 

was not long enough to reach the bottom even at a short 
distance from the shore. Dr. Richardson next produced a 
paddle he had brought from the coast, but which was found 
not powerful enough to impel the raft against a strong 
breeze. The failure of every attempt occasioned a deep 
despondency, which threatened to have the most fatal effects, 
when Dr. Richardson, with a disinterested courage that 
made him forget his own weakness, threw off his upper 
garments, and attempted to swim with a rope to the oppo- 
site bank. Plunging in with the line round his middle he 
at first made some way, but the extreme cold was too much 
for him, and in a few moments his arms became powerless ; 
still, being an expert swimmer, he not only liept himself 
afloat, but made way by turning on his back and using his 
legs, so that he had nearly reached the other side, when, to 
the inexpressible anguish of those who watched his progress, 
his limbs became benumbed, and he sank. All hands now 
hauled on the line, and drew him ashore almost lifeless ; but 
placed before a fire of willows, and stripped of his wet 
clothes, he gradually revived enough to give directions as to 
the mode of treating him. His thin and emaciated limbs, 
which were now exposed to view, produced an involuntary 
exclamation of compassion and surprise : — " Ah, que nous 
sommes maigres !" said the French Canadians ; but it is 
probable that few of them would have presented so gaunt 
and attenuated an appearance as the brave and excellent 
man who had thus nearly fallen a sacrifice to his humanity, 
for it was discovered about this time that the hunters were 
in the practice of withholding the game which they shot, 
and devouring it in secret.* 

Soon after this the party were joined by Mr. Back, who 
had traced the lake about fifteen miles farther up without 
discovering any place where it was possible to get across ; 
and towards evening Credit, who had been out hunting, re- 
turned without any game of his own killing ; but brought 
the antlers and back-bone of a deer shot during the summer. 
These relics had been already picked clean by the wolves 
and birds of prey, but the marrow remained in the spine ; 
and though completely putrid, and so acrid as to excoriate 
the lips, it was not the less acceptable. The bones were 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 423, 424. 



THE RIVER CROSSED. 163 

rendered friable by burning, and the whole eagerly devoured. 
St. Germain, one of the voyagers, now suggested that a 
canoe might be made of the painted canvass used to wrap 
up the bedding, and offered to construct it upon a frame- 
work of willows. For this purpose he and Adam removed 
to a clump of willows, while another party proceeded to the 
spot where they had encamped on the 25th, to collect pitch 
among the small pines to pay over the seams. A snow- 
storm at this moment came on, and the sufferings of the 
men hourly increasing, a deep gloom settled upon their 
spirits. Mr. Hood was by this time reduced to a perfect 
shadow; Mr. Back required the support of a stick; Dr. 
Richardson was lame ; and Franklin so feeble, that, after a 
struggle of three hours, he found himself utterly unable to 
reach the spot where St. Germain was at work, a distance 
of only three-quarters of a mile, and returned completely 
exhausted. The Canadian voyagers had now fallen into a 
state of despondency which bordered on despair, and, indif- 
ferent to their fate, refused to make the slightest exertion. 
The officers were unable to undergo the labour of gathering 
the tripe de roche, and Samandre, the cook, sullenly de- 
clined continuing his labours. At this miserable crisis the 
conduct of John Hepburn, an English sailor, was especially 
admirable, presenting a striking contrast to the gloomy sel- 
fishness of the Canadians. His firm reliance on the watch- 
ful goodness of God, and a cheerful resignation to his will, 
never for a moment forsook him ; and, animated by this 
blessed principle, his strength appeared to be preserved as 
the means of saving the party. He collected the tripe de 
roche for the officers' mess, cooked and served it out, and 
showed the most indefatigable zeal in his effi)rts to alleviate 
their suflferings. 

A gleam of hope at length arose when St. Germain com- 
pleted the canoe. It was impossible not to feel that their 
last chance of escape seemed to hang upon this little bark ; 
— would it prove sufficient for its purpose ] or, constructed 
of such wretched materials, would it not at once sink to the 
bottom] Amid this conflict of contending emotions it was 
launched on the river, and every heart bounded with exulta- 
tion when it floated, and St. Germain transported himself to 
the opposite side. It was drawn back, and, one by one, the 
whole party were ferried over, though, from the leaky state 



164 SLOW PROGRESS. 

of the little bark, their garments and bedding were com- 
pletely drenched. Franklin immediately despatched Mr. 
Back and three men to push on to Fort Enterprise in search 
of the Indians, while he himself followed with the rest. 

Nothing could exceed the joy of the Canadian voyagers 
at this unlooked-for deliverance. Their spirits rose from 
the deepest despondency into tumultuous exultation. They 
shook the officers by the hand, cried out that their worst 
difficulties were at an end, and expressed a confident hope 
of being able to reach Fort Enterprise in the course of a 
few days, — a boisterous and sudden confidence, to which the 
silent gratitude and quiet resolution of the pious Hepburn 
presented a striking contrast. 

Their tents and bedclothes were so much frozen, and the 
men, who had kindled a small fire, so weary, that it was 
eight in the morning before the bundles were packed, and 
the party set forward. They travelled in single files, each 
at a small distance from his neighbour. Mr. Hood, who 
was now nearly exhausted, was obHged to walk at a gentle 
pace in the rear. Dr. Richardson kindly keeping beside him ; 
while Franklin led the foremost men, that he might make 
them halt occasionally till the stragglers came up. Credit, 
hitherto one of their most active hunters, became lamentably 
weak from the eflfects of tripe de roche on his constitution, 
and Vaillant, from the same cause, was getting daily more 
emaciated. They only advanced six miles during the day, 
and at night satisfied the cravings of hunger by a small, 
quantity of tripe de roche mixed up with some scraps of 
roasted leather. During the night the wind increased to a 
strong gale, which continuing next day, besides being pierc- 
ingly cold, filled the atmosphere with a thick snow-drift. 
Having boiled and eaten the remains of their old shoes, and 
every shred of leather which could be picked up, they set 
forward ^ nine over bleak hills separated by equally barren 
valleys. 

In this manner they journeyed till noon, not without 
much straggling and frequent halts, at which time Saman- 
dre came up with the melancholy news that Credit and Vail- 
lant had dropped down, and were utterly unable to proceed. 
Dr. Richardson went back, and discovering Vaillant about 
a mile and a half in the rear, assured him that a fire was 
kindled a little way on, and that he would recover if he could 



TWO MEN LEFT IN THE SNOW. 165 

but reach it ; the poor fellow struggled up on his feet, and 
feebly tried to advance, but fell down every step in the deep 
snow. Leaving him, Dr. Richardson retraced his steps 
about a mile farther in a fruitless search for Credit. In re- 
turning he passed Vaillant, who had fallen down, utterly 
unable to renew his efforts to rejoin the party. Belanger 
went back to carry his burden and assist him to the fire ; 
but the cold had produced such a numbness that he could 
not speak or make the slightest exertion. The stoutest of 
the party were now implored to make a last effort to trans- 
port him to the fire, but declared themselves utterly unable 
for the task. They eagerly requested leave to throw down 
their loads, and proceed with the utmost speed to Fort En- 
terprise, — a scheme projected in the despair of the moment, 
and which must have brought destruction upon the whole. 
Matters had now reached a dreadful crisis ; it was neces- 
sary to come to an immediate decision regarding their ulti- 
mate measures, and a plan proposed by Mr. Hood and Dr. 
Richardson was adopted. These gentlemen consented to 
remain with a single attendant at the first spot where there 
were sufficient firewood and tripe de roche for ten days' 
consumption, while Franklin and the rest were to proceed 
with all expedition to Fort Enterprise, and send immediate 
.issistance. This scheme promised to relieve them of a con- 
siderable portion of their burdens, — for one of the tents and 
various other articles were to be left; and it gave poor 
Credit and Vaillant a fairer opportunity, should they revive, 
of regaining their companions. On the resolution being 
communicated to the men, they were cheered with the pros- 
pect of an alleviation of their misery, and pressed forward 
in search of a convenient spot for the proposed separation. 
Near nightfall they encamped under the lee of a hill among 
some willows, which furnished a small fire, but not suffi- 
ciently strong to thaw their frozen clothes ; and no tripe de 
roche having been found during the day, they lay down hun- 
gry, cold, and full of the gloomiest apprehensions, while 
sleep fled from their eyelids, and the images of their dying 
companions rose before their imagination in colours which 
made them shudder for a fate that might so soon become 
their own.* Next morning the weather providentially was 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 431, 432. 



166 FRANKLIN PUSHES FORWARD. 

mild, and setting out at nine they arrived towards noon at a 
thicket of willows, in the neighbourhood of some rocks 
bearing a pretty full supply of tripe de roche. Here Dr. 
Richardson and Mr. Hood determined to remain. The tent 
was pitched, a barrel of ammunition and other articles were 
deposited, and Hepburn, who volunteered the service, was 
appointed to continue with them. The rest of the party 
now had only to carry a single tent, the ammunition, and 
the officers' journals, in addition to their own clothes and a 
single blanket for Captain Franklin. When all was ready, 
the whole party united in thanksgiving and prayers to Al- 
mighty God for their mutual preservation, and separated 
with the melancholy reflection that it might ia all probability 
be the last time they should ever again meet in this world. 
On leaving their friends Captain Franklin and his party 
descended into a more level country ; but the snow lay so 
deep, and they were so little able to wade through it that 
they encamped, after a painful march of only four miles and 
a half, in which Belanger and Michel, an Iroquois, were left 
far behind, yet still struggling forward. In the evening they 
came in dreadfully exhausted, and Belanger, till now one 
of the strongest of the party, could not refrain from tears 
as he declared he was totally unable to proceed, and im- 
plored permission to return to Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood. 
Michel made the same request, and it was agreed that they 
should do so. The cold of the night was excessive, and 
the men were so weak that they could not raise the tent ; 
from its weight it was impossible to transport it from place 
to place, and it was cut up, the canvass serving them for a 
covering ; but, though they lay close together, the intense 
frost deprived them of sleep. Having no tripe de roche, 
they had supped upon an infusion of the Labrador tea-plant, 
with a few morsels of burnt leather. Michel and Belanger, 
being apparently more exhausted in the morning than over- 
night, were left, while the rest moved forward. After a very 
short progress Perrault was attacked with a fit of dizziness ; 
but, on halting a little, again proposed to proceed. In ten 
minutes, however, he sank down, and, weeping aloud, de- 
clared his total inabihty to go on. He was accordingly ad- 
vised to rejoin Michel and Belanger, — a proposal in which 
he acquiesced. These examples of the total failure of the 
Strongest in the party had a very unfavourable effect on the 



ARRIVAL AT FORT ENTERPRISE. 167 

spirits of the rest, and the exertion of wading through the 
snow and crossing a lake on the ice, where they were fre- 
quently blown down, was so severe, that Fontano, after 
having repeatedly fallen, piteously complained that he was 
utterly unable to go farther. Being not two miles from the 
others, it was thought best that he also should attempt to 
rejoin them ;* and as he was much beloved, the parting was 
very distressing. They watched him for some time, and 
were comforted by seeing that, though his progress was 
very slow, he kept his feet belter than before. 

The whole party was now reduced to five persons. Cap- 
tain Franklin, Adam, Peltier, Benoit, and Samandre, the 
interpreter Augustus having pressed forward by himself 
during the late frequent halts. They made that day only 
four miles and a half, and encamped for the night under a 
rock, supping again on an infusion of the Labrador tea-plant 
and some shreds of boiled leather. The evening was com- 
paratively mild, the breeze light, and having the comfort of 
a fire, they enjoyed some sleep. This was of infinite advan- 
tage ; it gave them new spirits, which were further invigo- 
rated by a breakfast of tripe de roche, this being the fourth 
day since they had a regular meal. On reaching Marten 
Lake they found it frozen over, — a circumstance which they 
knew would enable them to walk upon the ice straight to 
Fort Enterprise. 

It may be easily imagined what were the sensations of 
the party in approaching the spot which they trusted would 
be the end of all their toils and privations. From the ar- 
rangements previously made, it was judged certain that 
they would here find relief, and be able to send assistance 
to their unfortunate companions. It was a spot where they 
had enjoyed, at a former period of the expedition, the great- 
est comfort ; but it was possible, though they scarcely per- 
mitted themselves to contemplate so dreadful an idea, that 
circumstances might have occurred to defeat their present 
expectations. On approaching the house their minds were 
strongly agitated between hope and fear, and, contrary to 
their usual custom, they advanced in silence. At length 
they reached it, and their worst apprehensions were realized. 
It was completely desolate. No provisions had been depos- 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 436, 437. 



168 THE FORT FOUND DESERTED. 

ited — no trace of Indians could be discovered — no letter lay 
there from Mr. Wentzel to inform them where the Indians 
might be found. On entering, a mute despair seized the 
party. They gazed on the cold hearth, comfortless walls, 
and broken sashes, through which the wind and snow pene- 
trated, and, awakening to a full sense of the horrors of their 
situation, burst into tears.* On recovering a little, and 
looking round with more attention, a note was found from 
Mr. Back, stating that having two days before this reached 
the house, he had proceeded in search of the Indians ; but 
it described his party as so debihtated that it was doubtful 
whether they would be able to reach Fort Providence. The 
suiferings endured by this meritorious officer and his little 
party, one of whom was frozen to death, were equally dread- 
ful with those which fell to the share of his excellent com- 
mander.f 

The poor sufferers, thus grievously disappointed, now 
examined the deserted habitation for the means of subsist- 
ence, and found several deer-skins thrown away during their 
former residence at the fort. The heaps of ashes were 
carefully raked, and a considerable collection of bones dis- 
covered, which were hoarded up for the purpose of being 
pounded and manufactured into soup. The parchment 
originally employed instead of glass had been torn from the 
windows, and the place was exposed to all the inclemency of 
an arctic winter ; but they succeeded in filling the sashes 
with loose boards, and as the temperature of the outer air 
was now from 15° to 20° below zero, this precaution was 
especially necessary. To procure water they melted the 
frozen lumps of snow, and the flooring of the neighbouring 
apartment was broken up for fuel. 

Having completed these arrangements, they assembled 
round the fire, and were busy singeing the hair off a deer- 
skin, when they were cheered by the entrance of the inter- 
preter, who had made his way to the fort by a different route, 
through a country he had never traversed before. Though 
by far the strongest of the party, he was now so enfeebled 
by famine that he could not follow two deer which he had 
seen on his way. Next morning there was a heavy gale 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 439, 439. 

t See Mr. Back's interesUng Narrative, Franklin'.s Journey, p. 477. 



FRANKLIN ATTEMPTS TO PROCEED. 169 

from the south-east, and the snow drifted so thick that no 
one ventured abroad. On the evening of the succeeding 
day, a figure covered with ice, benumbed with cold, and 
almost speechless, staggered into the house : it was one of 
the Canadians who had been despatched with a note by Mr. 
Back, and having fallen into a rapid, narrowly escaped being 
drowned.* To change his dress, wrap him in warm 
blankets, and pour some soup over his throat, was their first 
care ; and after a httle he revived enough to answer the 
anxious questions with which he was assailed. From his 
replies but little comfort was derived. Mr. Back had seen 
no trace of the Indians, and the messenger's recollection 
appeared confused with regard to the part of the country 
where he had left his officer, who, as he stated, intended to 
proceed to the spot where the Indian chief Akaitcho had 
encamped last summer, — a distance of about thirty miles. 
Thither he proposed to follow when he was a little recruited ; 
and, though dissuaded from the attempt, persisted that as 
the track was beaten he would '« able to make it out, and 
to convey intelligence of the situation of Captain Franklin's 
party. Accordingly, the fifth day after his arrival, he de- 
parted from the fort with a small supply of singed hide. 

Not long after, Adam, one of the five men who now re- 
mained with Captain Franklin, became so ill that he was 
utterly incapable of moving, and it was discovered that he 
had been for some time aflSicted with oedematous swellings in 
various parts of his body, which he had hitherto generously 
concealed, from a wish not to impede the movements of his 
companions. As it was impossible for this poor man to 
travel, it was necessary to abandon the original intention of 
proceeding with the whole party to Fort Providence, and 
Peltier and Samandre, who were in almost as weak a state, 
having expressed a wish to remain with Adam, Captain 
Franklin, along with Augustus and Benoit, determined to 
press on to Fort Providence, and to send relief to their com- 
panions by the first party of Indians they should meet. 

Having accordingly given directions regarding the journals 
and charts which were left in their custody, and the best 
mode of forwarding succour to Mr. Hood and Dr. Richardson, 
Franklin set forward with his two attendants ; but so feeble 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 440, 441, 
P 



170 FRANKLIN JOINED BY HIS FRIENDS, 

had they become, that the distance accomplished in sh 
hours was only four miles. They encamped on the borders 
of Round Rock Lake, and, unable to find any tripe de roche, 
made their supper upon fried deer-skin. The night proved 
intensely cold, and although they crept as close to each other 
as possible, they shivered in every limb, and the wind 
pierced through their famished frames.* Next morning was 
mild, and they set out early, but had scarce proceeded a few 
yards, when Franklin fell between two rocks and broke his 
snow-shoes, an accident which incapacitated him from keep- 
ing up with Benoit and Augustus. In a very short time 
his attempt to press forward completely exhausted him ; and 
as the only hope of preserving the lives ' of the party 
appeared to rest on their speedily reaching Fort Providence, 
he determined, rather than retard them, to retrace his steps 
to the house while they proceeded for assistance. Calling 
a moment's halt, he addressed one note to Mr. Back, re- 
questing an immediate supply of meat from Rein-deer Lake, 
and another to the commandant at Fort Providence, with 
urgent entreaties for assistance. This done, Augustus and 
Benoit resumed their journey, and Franklin returned to the 
house. 

On arriving he found Adam, Samandr^, and Peltier still 
alive ; but the two first, whose minds seemed quite enfeebled, 
could not be prevailed on to leave their bed, and their nervous 
weakness was so great that they scarcely ceased shedding 
tears all day. It was even with difficulty that they were 
prevailed on to take any nourishment ; and the labour of 
cutting and carrying fuel, gathering the tripe de roche, and 
cooking fell entirely upon Franklin and Peltier. The frost 
was now so severe that it was evident this lichen would 
soon be bound up in ice, and as their strength daily declined, 
every exertion became irksome. When once seated, it re- 
quired a painful effort to rise up, and not unfrequently they 
had to lift each other from their chairs. This miserable 
condition could not last long. Peltier soon became almost 
incapable of holding the hatchet ; the bone-soup had grown 
so acrid as to corrode the inside of their mouths ; the tripe 
de roche, covered with ice, defied all efforts to detach it from 
the rock ; and though the rein-deer sported on the banks of 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 444. 



DR. RICHARDSON AND HEPBURN. 171 

the river, no one had strength to go after them, or to hold a 
gun so steadily as to secure an aim 

Still the hopes and cheerfulness of Franklin did not de- 
sert him. From his knowledge of the places mostly frequented 
at that season by the Indians, he was sanguine as to the 
likelihood of their being found ; and their speedy arrival 
formed a constant subject of conversation. At length, on 
the evening of the 29th, when talking of this long looked- 
for relief, and sitting round the fire, Peltier suddenly leaped 
ny and uttered a joyful exclamation, imagining he heard 
the bustle of the Indians in the adjoining room. It was not 
the Indians, however, but Dr. Richardson and Hepburn, 
wJio came in each carrying his bundle. The meeting was 
one of mingled joy and sorrow. Poor Hood's absence was 
instantly perceived, and their saddest anticipations were 
confirmed by Dr. Richardson declaring that this young officer 
ana Michel were dead, and that neither Perrault nor Fon- 
tano had reached the tent, or been heard of. Such news 
could not fail to create despondency. All were shocked at 
the emaciated countenances and hollow voices of Dr. Rich- 
ardson and his companion, while Captain Franklin and his 
fellow-sufferers, having become gradually accustomed to the 
dreadful effects of famine upon each other, were not aware 
that, to the eyes of their friends who had just arrived, the 
alteration upon themselves was equally melancholy. " The 
doctor," says Franklin, " particularly remarked the sepul- 
chral tone of our voices, which he requested us to make 
more cheerful if possible, not aware that his own partook 
of the same key."* 

The arrival of these friends, however, was soon attended 
with a favourable change. Though greatly reduced, they 
were still in a better condition than their unfortunate com 
panions, and it was not long till Hepburn shot a partridge. 
Dr. Richardson speedily tore off the feathers, and having 
held it for a few minutes at the fire divided it into six 
pieces : Franklin and his companions ravenously devoured 
their portions, " being the first morsel of flesh that any of 
them had tasted for thirty-one days," and Dr. Richardson 
cheered them with the prospect that Hepburn might pos- 
sibly bring in a deer in his next expedition. The counsels 

♦ Franklin's Journey, p. 447. 



172 HAPPY EFFECTS OF HEPBURN's COUNSELS. 

and example of this pious and intelligent man produced the 
best effects on the spirits of the party. He had brought 
with him his Testament and Prayer-book ; and by reading 
portions of Scripture appropriate to their situation, and en- 
couraging them to join in prayer and thanksgiving, he led 
them to the only Source whence, under the awful circum- 
stances in which they were placed, they could derive hope 
or consolation. He taught them the necessity of exertion, 
whatever pain it might at first cost ; roused them to pay some 
attention to the cleanliness of their apartment, and insisted 
particularly that during the day they should roll up their 
blankets, which they had been in the practice of leaving 
beside the fire where they slept. Their several tasks were 
now allotted to each ; Hepburn and Richardson went out 
in search of deer ; while Franklin, being unable to walk 
far, remained nearer the house, and digged under the snow 
for skins, which, during their former happy winter residence 
at this station, when they killed and ate abundance of 
game, were thrown away as useless, but now, in their 
almost putrid state, formed their principal support. The 
cutting of firewood was intrusted to Peltier and Samandre; 
but both were so weak and dispirited that it was generally 
performed by Hepburn on his return from hunting ; as for 
Adam, his legs were still so severely swollen that he kept 
his bed, though an operation performed by Dr. Richardson 
gave him some ease. In the midst of these necessary 
cares, all seemed for a while to dread approaching the sub 
ject of Hood and Michel's death ; but at length one even 
ing, on the return of the doctor from hunting, and after 
having despatched their usual supper of singed skin and 
bone-soup, they requested him to relate the particulars, and 
a more afflicting, or in some respects a more terrific story, 
as it appears in his published narrative, could not well be 
conceived. 

He stated, that after being left by Captain Franklin they 
remained beside the fire as long as it lasted. Having no 
tripe de roche, they supped on an infusion of the country 
tea-plant, which was grateful from its warmth, but afforded 
no nourishment, and retired to rest. Next day proved 
stormy, and the snow being so deep that a fire could not be 
kindled with the green willows, they lay in bed reading 
some religious books with which the party had been fur- 



Richardson's narrative. 173 

nished before leaving England by the affectionate and pjous 
care of a lady. " They proved," says Richardson, " of in- 
calculable benefit to us. We read portions of them to each 
other as we lay in bed, in addition to the morning and 
evening service, and found that they inspired us on each 
perusal with so strong a sense of the omnipresence of a 
beneficent God, that our situation in these wilds appeared 
no longer destitute ; and we conversed not only with calm- 
ness but with cheerfulness, detailing with unrestrained con- 
fidence the past events of our Uves, and dwelling with hope 
upon our future prospects."* 

The weather clearing up. Dr. Richardson went out in 
search of tripe de roche, leaving Mr. Hood in bed and Hep- 
burn cutting willows for a fire ; but the rocks were covered 
with ice and snow, and he was unsuccessful. On his re- 
turn he found Michel the Iroquois, who delivered the note 
from Franklin. t All were surprised to see him alone; but 
he stated that Belanger had separated from him, and, as he 
supposed, lost his way, he himself having wandered far 
from the straight road. They had afterward good reason 
to suspect the truth of this story, but believed it at that 
moment, and were rejoiced to see him produce a hare and 
a partridge, — an unlooked-for supply, which they received 
with humble thankfulness to the Giver of all good. Frank- 
lin's note advised them to advance to a little wood of pines, 
which would aflTord better fuel ; and to this they removed 
under the guidance of Michel, who led them straight to the 
spot. 

As he had declared himself so little acquainted with the 
country as to lose his way, it seemed strange that he should 
at once conduct them to the thicket. This roused their 
attention, and made them feel rather uneasy as to his 
honesty ; and various circumstances occurred to increase 
their suspicions. He requested the loan of a hatchet, when 
any other hunter would have taken only his knife. He re- 
mained abroad all day without any definite employment. 
He brought them some raw meat, saying it was part of 
the carcass of a wolf; but which they had afterward rea- 
son to believe was a portion of the bodies of Belanger and 
Perrault, whom they suspected him to have murdered. He 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 449. t Ibid. p. 449. 
P2 



174 Michel's suspicious conduct. 

shunned the society of Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood, re- 
fusing to sleep in the tent, and preferring to lie alone at the 
fire. On going out with the purpose of remaining a whole 
day, he often returned abruptly, and when questioned gave 
vague answers. In a few days he began to regret that he 
had left Captain Franklin's party, refused to take any share 
in the labour of cutting wood, talked in a surly and insolent 
manner, ind could scarcely be prevailed upon to go out and 
hunt at all. These symptoms of gloomy dissatisfaction 
increased ; he resisted all entreaties, and when Mr. Hood, 
who was now reduced by famine to the last extremity, re- 
monstrated with him, he flew into a violent passion, and 
exclaimed, " It is of no use hunting; there are- no animals; 
you had better kill and eat me." He afterward, however, 
consented to go out, but returned upon some frivolous pre- 
tence ; and on the succeeding day that dreadful catastrophe 
took place which will be best given in the words of Dr. 
Richardson's Journal. 

"In the morning," says he, "being Sunday, October 
20th, we again urged Michel to go a-hunting, that he 
might, if possible, leave us some provision, to-morrow being 
the day appointed for his quitting us ; but he showed great 
unwillingness to go out, and lingered about the fire under 
the pretence of cleaning his gun. After we had read the 
morning service, I went about noon to gather some tripe 
de roche, leaving Mr. Hood sitting before the tent at the 
fireside arguing with Michel. Hepburn was employed 
cutting down a tree at a small distance from the tent, being 
desirous of accumulating a quantity of firewood. A short 
time after I went out I heard the report of a gun, and about 
ten minutes afterward Hepburn called to me in a voice of 
great alarm to come directly. When I arrived I found poor 
Hood lying lifeless at the fireside, a ball having apparently 
entered his forehead. I was at first horror-struck with the 
idea that in a fit of despondency he had hurried himself 
into the presence of his Almighty Judge by an act of his 
own hand ; but the conduct of Michel soon gave rise to 
other thoughts, and excited suspicions which were con- 
firmed, when, upon examining the body, I found that the 
shot had entered the back part of the head and had passed 
out at the forehead, while the muzzle of the gun had been 
applied so close as to set fire to the nightcap behind. The 



MURDER OF MR. HOOD. 175 

gun, which was of the longest khid supplied to the Indians, 
could not have been placed in the position to inflict such a 
wound except by a second person. Upon inquiring of 
Michel how it happened, he replied that Mr. Hood had 
sent him into the tent for the short gun, and that during 
his absence the long gun had gone off, he did not know 
whether by accident or not. He held the short gun in his 
hand at the time he was speaking. Hepburn afterward as- 
serted, that previous to tho report of the gun, Mr. Hood 
and Michel were speaking to each other in an elevated 
angry tone : he added, that Mr. Hood, being seated at the 
fireside, was hid from him by intervening willows ; but that 
on hearing the report he looked up, and saw Michel rising 
up from before the tent-door, or just behind where Mr. Hood 
was seated, and then going into the tent. Thinking that 
the gun had been discharged for the purpose of cleaning it, 
he did not go to the fire at first ; and when Michel called 
to him that Mr. Hood was dead, a considerable time had 
elapsed. * * * Bickersteth's Scripture Help was lying 
open beside the body, as if it had fallen from his hand, and 
it is probable he was reading it at the instant of his 
death."* 

Such was the melancholy fate of Mr. Hood, a young 
officer of the highest promise, who by his conduct had en- 
deared himself to every member of the expedition, and 
whose sufferings, as they were more intense from the pe- 
culiarity of his constitution, were borne with a placid and 
unpretending fortitude which it was impossible to contem- 
plate without emotion. Both Dr. Richardson and Hepburn 
were convinced he had met his death from the hands of 
Michel ; but to have accused him at that moment would 
have been the extremity of rashness. They were so re- 
duced by famine that he could easily have overpowered 
both. His appearance showed that he possessed secret 
supplies of food; he was of great bodily strength, and was 
armed to the teeth, carrying, besides his gun, a brace of 
pistols, an Indian bayonet, and a knife. To have hinted a 
suspicion, therefore, might have been instantly fatal, and 
they affected to consider the death of their companion en- 
tirely accidental. As his weakness had been the chief 

* Franklin's Journey, vol.iv J.2mo. ed. p. 109-112. 



176 THREATS OF MICHEL : 

cause of delaying their journey, they now set out for the 
fort, having first paid the last rites to the dead in the only 
way which their situation would permit. The ground was 
so hard and their strength so exhausted, that to dig a grave 
was impossible ; so they carried the body into the willow 
grove behind the tent, and returning to the fire read the 
funeral service in addition to their evening devotions. 

In the morning, having singed the hair off a portion of 
Mr. Hood's buffalo robe, they boiled and ate it for breakfast. 
Meanwhile, the conduct of Michel was so extraordinary, 
that had they not been already convinced of his guilt, no 
doubt of it could have remained. Though not a breath of 
their suspicions reached his ears, he repeatedly protested 
that he was incapable of committing such an act ; he kept 
constantly on his guard ; appeared fearful of leaving Dr. 
Richardson and Hepburn alone even for the shortest time : 
and when Hepburn spoke he listened anxiously, though 
very imperfectly acquainted with the English language, 
fixed his eyes keenly upon him, and asked fiercely if he ac- 
cused him of the murder. He evinced great unwillingness 
to set out for the fort, and wished Dr. Richardson to pro- 
ceed to the Coppermine River, where he said the woods 
would supply plenty of deer. On finding this advice dis- 
regarded his conduct became more and more alarming ; he 
muttered to himself, fell into sullen fits of abstraction, and 
used those convulsive and abrupt gestures often involun- 
tarily exhibited by a person whose mind is full of some 
dreadful purpose. Suddenly awakening from this revery, 
he again expressed his unwillingness to return to the fort, 
and renewed his solicitations to Dr. Richardson to repair to 
the southern woods, where they would find ample subsist- 
ence. On being requested to pursue his own plan alone, 
and leave them to continue their journey, he broke into an 
ungovernable fury, accused Hepburn of having told stories 
against him, and assmned such airs of superiority as showed 
that he knew they were both in his power, at the same time 
giving vent to expressions of hatred against the white peo- 
ple, calling them deadly enemies, and affirming they had 
killed and eaten his uncle and two of his relations. 

None of these menaces were lost upon Richardson and 
Hepburn ; both felt they were not safe in this man's com- 
pany ; and these dreadful surmises rose into certainty when 



HIS DEATH. 177 

he threw out hints that he would free himself from all re- 
straint on the morrow. Being now convinced that, as he 
had cruelly murdered Hood, he was resolved also to sacrifice 
them, they ascribed his not having already done so to the 
circumstance of his not knowing the way to the fort, and 
requiring their guidance. They came to this conclusion 
without any communication with each other ; for their 
fierce companion would not leave them a moment, watching 
them with a malignant look, and frequently muttering 
threats against Hepburn. Towards evening, as they ap- 
proached the spot where it would be necessary to stop for 
the night, Michel halted to gather tripe de roche, and to 
their surprise bade them walk on and he would soon over- 
take them. Hepburn and Dr. Richardson, now left alone 
together for the first time since Mr. Hood's death, rapidly 
opened their minds to each other. In addition to the facts 
already mentioned, others came to light which left not the 
slightest doubt as to Michel's guilt ; and so convinced was 
Hepburn of there being no safety for them but in his death, 
that, though a man of extreme benevolence and deep re- 
ligious principle, he offered to be the instrument of it him- 
self. " Had my own life," says Dr. Richardson, " alone 
been threatened, I would not have purchased it by such a 
measure ; but I considered myself as intrusted also with 
the protection of Hepburn's, a man who by his humane 
attentions and devotedness had so endeared himself to me 
that I felt more anxiety for his safety than for my own." 
Animated by such feelings, and convinced that Michel's 
death was necessary to self-preservation, he determined 
that it ought to be by his own and not by Hepburn's hand, 
and on his coming up shot him through the head with a 
pistol. It appeared that he had gathered no tripe de roche, 
and had halted to put his gun in order, no doubt with the 
intention of attacking them when in the act of encamping.* 
Dr. Richardson and Hepburn now pursued their way to 
the fort ; but fatigue, and want of food and fuel, had nearly 
proved fatal to them. They remarked, however, that repeat- 
edly when death seemed inevitable, an unexpected supply of 
provisions again restored them ; and the confidence that, 
when no human help was nigh, they were supported by a 

* Franklin's Journey, p. 457, 458. 



178 DEATH OF PELTIER AND SAMANDRfe. 

merciful God, inspired them with renewed hope. At last they 
had the dehght of beholding from an eminence the smoke 
issuing from the chimney of the fort, and immediately after 
embracing those friends for whose fate they had entertained 
so many melancholy forebodings. So ended this interest- 
ing narrative. 

The whole party were now once more united, but under 
circumstances of the most distressing privation ; all ema- 
ciated to such a degree as to look like living skeletons ; their 
hands shook from weakness, so that to take an aim was im- 
possible ; and the rein-deer, partridges, and other game 
flew or bounded past in joyousness and security, while the 
unhappy beings who beheld them were gaunt with hunger. 
The winter was closing in with all its horrors ; it became 
daily more difficult to procure fuel, the labour of cutting and 
carrying the logs being so grievous that only Dr. Richardson 
and Hepburn could undertake it ; and to scrape the ground 
for bones, and to cook this miserable meal, was all Captain 
Franklin could accomplish. On 1st November, the doctor 
obtained some tripe de roche ; and as Peltier and Samandre 
were in the last stage of exhaustion, it was hoped a little of 
the soup might revive them. All was in vain ; they tasted 
a few spoonfuls, but soon complained of a soreness in their 
throats, and both died in the course of the night, apparently 
without pain. To inter the bodies, or even carry them to 
the river, was a task for which the united strength of the 
survivors was inadequate ; all they could do was to remove 
them into an opposite part of the house ; and the living and 
the dead remained in awful contiguity under the same roof. 

The party was now reduced to four, — Franklin, Richard- 
eon, Hepburn, and Adam. The last had become dreadfully 
low since the death of his companions, and could not bear 
to be left alone for a moment. Their stock of bones was 
exhausted, and in a short time it was evident that the se- 
verity of the frost must render the gathering of the tripe de 
roche impossible. Under these circumstances, with death 
by famine approaching every hour, this little band of pious 
and brave men were supported by an unwavering reliance 
on the mercy of God. " We read prayers," says Captain 
Franklin, " and a portion of the New Testament in the 
morning and evening, as had been our practice since Dr. 
Richardson's arrival ; and I may remark, that the perform^ 



UNEXPECTED RELIEF. 179 

ance of these duties always afforded us the greatest conso- 
lation, serving to reanimate our hope in the mercy of the 
Omnipotent, who alone could save and deliver us."* It 
seemed as if it were the mysterious design of the Almighty 
to permit them to be reduced to the lowest depth of suffering, 
that his power might be magnified at the very moment when 
every human effort appeared utterly impotent. Hitherto 
Dr. Richardson and Hepburn had been the healthiest of the 
party, but they had overwrought themselves, and both sank 
rapidly. Owing to their loss of flesh, the hardness of the 
floor, from which they were only protected by a single 
blanket, rendered the whole surface of their bodies sore ; 
yet the labour of turning from one side to the other was too 
much for them. As their strength sank, their mental facul- 
ties partook of the weakness of their frame ; and, to employ 
the candid and simple expressions of the excellent leader, 
" an unreasonable pettishness with each other began to 
manifest itself, each believing the other weaker in intellect 
than himself, and more in need of advice and assistance." 
During this gloomy period, after the first acute pains of 
hunger (which lasted but for three or four days) had sub- 
sided, they generally enjoyed the refreshment of sleep, ac- 
companied by dreams which, for the most part, partook of a 
pleasant character, and very often related to the pleasures 
of feasting.! 

Help, however, was now near at hand, and we shall not 
impair the affecting description of their deliverance by giving 
it in any other than Captain Frankhn's own words. " On 
November 7th, Adam had passed a restless night, being 
disquieted by gloomy apprehensions of approaching death, 
which they tried in vain to dispel. He was so low in the 
morning as scarcely to be able to speak, and Captain Frank- 
lin remained by his bedside to cheer him as much as 
possible, while the doctor and Hepburn went out to cut 
wood. They had hardly begun their labour when they were 
amazed at hearing the report of a musket, and could 
scarcely believe that there was any one near till they heard 
a shout, and espied three Indians close to the house. Adam 
and Franklin heard the latter noise, and were fearful that 
some part of the house had fallen upon one of their com* 

♦ Franklin's Journey, p. 464, t Franklin's Journey, p. 466, 46«l, 



180 ARRIVAL OF THE INDIANS. 

panions, — a disaster which had been thought not unlikely. 
The alarm was only momentary ; for Dr. Richardson came 
in to communicate the joyful intelligence that relief had 
arrived. He and Captain Franklin immediately addressed 
their thanksgivings to the Throne of Mercy for this deliver- 
ance ; but poor Adam was in so low a state that he could 
scarcely comprehend the information. When the Indians 
entered he attempted to rise, but immediately sank down 
again. But for this seasonable interposition of Providence, 
his existence must have terminated in a few hours, and that 
of the rest probably in not many days."* 

The Indians, who had been despatched by Mr. Back, had 
travelled with great expedition, and brought a small sup- 
ply of provisions. They imprudently presented too much 
food at first ; and though aware of the effects which might 
arise from a surfeit, and warned by Dr. Richardson to eat very 
sparingly, the sight of the venison was irresistible : and it 
was devoured by them all, not excluding the doctor him- 
self, with an avidity that soon produced the most acute 
pains, which during the night deprived them of rest. Adam, 
whose weakness rendered him unable to feed himself, was 
not subjected to the same inconvenience, and taking mode- 
rate meals revived hourly. All now was thankfulness and 
cheerful activity. Boudel-kell, the youngest Indian, after an 
hour's rest, returned to the encampment of Akaitcho, the 
Dog-rib chief, carrying a note from Captain Franklin, and 
a request for another supply of provisions. The two others, 
named in their familiar manner Crooked Foot and the Rat, 
remained to nurse the white men. Under their care the 
apartment, lately so desolate, and something between a sep- 
ulchre and a lazar-house, assumed a gladdened look which 
had the best efi'ect. The dead bodies were removed, the 
room cleaned of its filth and fragments of pounded bones, 
and large cheerful fires produced a sensation of comfort to 
which they had long been strangers. The poor suflerers 
had often cast a wishful eye on a pile of dried wood near 
the river, but were utterly unable to carry it up the bank. 
"When pointed out to the Indians, they fetched it home with 
a rapidity which astonished their feeble friends. " They set 
about every thing," says Franklin, "with an activity which 

♦ Franklin's Journey, p. 467. 



CONCLUSION OF THE EXPEDITION. iSl 

tmazed us. Indeed, contrasted with our emaciated figures 
and extreme debility, their frames appeared to us gigantic, 
and their strength supernatural." 

Under the care of the Indians, and the blessing of whole- 
some and regular meals, the strength of the party was so 
far restored, that, although still feeble, on the 16th, after 
having united in prayer and thanksgiving to God for their 
deliverance, they left Fort Enterprise, — a spot where, as they 
had formerly enjoyed mucli comfort, if not happiness, they 
had latterly experi«'nced a degree of misery scarcely to be 
paralleled.* The Indians treated them with unremitting 
kindness, gave llienr their own snow-shoes, and walked at 
their side to be ready to lift them up when they fell. In this 
manner they pushed forward to the abode of Akaitcho, the 
Indian chief, who welcomed them with the utmost hospita- 
Uty. Soon after they received letters from their friends at 
Fort Providence, and the messenger also brought two trains 
of dogs, a package of spirits and tobacco for the Indians, 
and a supply of shirts and clothes for Captain Franklin and 
his companions. The gratilication of changing their linen, 
which had been uninterruptedly worn ever since their de- 
parture from the seacoast, is described as conveying an in- 
tensity of comfort to which no words can do justice. From 
this spot their progress to Fort Providence and thence to 
Montreal was prosperous and easy ; and thus terminated 
their long, fatiguing, and disastrous travels in North 
America, having journeyed by water and by land, includ 
ing their navigation of the Polar Sea, 5550 miles. 

So disastrous had been the result of his first expedition, 
and so appalling the sulferings with w^hich it was accompa- 
nied, that nothing assuredly can convey a more honourable 
testimony to the enthusiastic zeal and unshaken perseve- 
rance of Captain Franklin, than the statement of the simple 
fact, that towards the close of 1823, having learned the de- 
termination of government to make another attempt to effect 
a northern passage by sea between the Atlantic and Pacific 
Oceans, he, to use his own words, " ventured to lay before 
his majesty's government a plan for an expedition overlandl 
to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and thence by sea to 
the north-western extremity of America, with the combined 

* Franklin's .Tourney, i>. 470. 



182 franklin's second journey. 

object also of surveying the coasts between the Mackenzie 
and the Coppermine Rivers." 

It was the opinion of this able officer, that in the course he 
now proposed to follow, reverses similar to those which had 
surrounded his first journey were scarcely to be appre- 
hended ; and his views having met the approbation of govern- 
ment, he received directions for the equipment of the 
expedition, and was nominated its commander. He had 
the satisfaction also of being once more accompanied by his 
valued friend Dr. Richardson ; who, unappalled by his 
former dreadful sufferings, again offered his services as 
naturalist and surgeon, and volunteered to undertake the 
survey of the coast between the Mackenzie and Coppermine 
Rivers, while Captain Franklin was occupied in an attempt 
to reach Icy Cape.* Previous to the departure of the ships 
a correspondence was opened with the governor and direc- 
tors of the Hudson's Bay Company ; who transmitted in- 
junctions to their officers in the fur-countries to provide 
depots of provisions at the stations pointed out by Franklin. 

The building of proper boats for the navigation of the 
Arctic Sea, as well as the passage of the rapids between 
York Factory and Mackenzie River, formed the next object 
of attention. It was evident that the canoes of birch-bark 
employed by Sir A. Mackenzie, and by Captain Franklin in 
his first journey, though excellently adapted for the Ameri- 
can rivers, uniting lightness and facility of repair with speed, 
were yet, from the tenderness of the bark, little fitted to re- 
sist the force of the arctic waves, or the collision of the 
sharp-pointed masses of ice. Captain Franklin accordingly 
obtained the Admiralty's permission to have three boats 
constructed, at Woolwich, under his own superintendence. 
" They were built," says he, " of mahogany, with timbers 
of ash, both ends exactly alike, and fitted to be steered either 
with a ship-oar or a rudder. The largest, being twenty-six 
feet long and five feet four inches broad, was adapted for six 
rowers, a steersman, and an officer ; it was found to be ca- 
pable of carrying three tons weight in addition to the crev/, 
and could be transported with ease on the shoulders of six 
men. The other two boats were twenty-four feet in length. 



♦ Franklin's Narrative of a Second Expedition to iLe Shores of the 
Polar ^ea. Introductory Chapter, p. lU. 



DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION. 183 

four feet ten inches broaJ, and held a crew of five men, be- 
sides a steersman and an officer, with an extra weight of 
two and a half tons. In addition to these, another little 
vessel was constructed, at Woolwich, which reflected great 
credit upon its inventor, Lieutenant-colonel Pasley, of the 
Royal Engineers. Its shape was exactly that of one of the 
valves of a walnut-shell, and it was framed of well-seasoned 
planks of ash, fastened together with thongs, and covered 
with Mackintosh's prepared canvass. It weighed only 
eighty-five pounds, and when taken to pieces could be made 
up in five or six parcels, and again put together in less than 
twenty minutes, although it was nine feet long by four feet 
four inches in breadth."* Each person on board was pro- 
vided with two suits of water-proof dresses, prepared by 
Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow ; the guns, which were of the 
same bore as the fowling-pieces furnished by the Hudson's 
Bay company to the Indian hunters, had their locks tem- 
pered to resist the cold ; each being fitted with a broad 
Indian dagger similar to a bayonet, which, on being dis- 
joined, could be used as a knife. Ammunition of the best 
quality, and a store of provisions sufficient for two years, 
were also supplied. 

The expedition sailed from Liverpool on 16th Februarj;-, 
1825, and after a favourable passage to New- York, pro- 
ceeded to Albany, travelled through Utica, Rochester, and 
Geneva, crossed the Niagara and Lake Ontario, coasted the 
northern shore of Lake Superior, and thence pushed for- 
ward through Rainy Lake, the Lake of the Woods, Lake 
Winipeg, Saskatchawan River, and arrived at Cumberland 
House on the 15th June. From this station, proceeding 
northward to Isle a la Crosse, and passing through Deep 
River and Clear and Buffalo Lakes, they overtook their 
boats in Methye River on the morning of 29th June. The 
advanced period of the season rendered it impossible to em- 
bark on the Mackenzie before the middle of August, so that 
it became necessary to postpone the great expedition till the 
ensuing summer. They accordingly established their winter- 
quarters on the banks, erecting a habitation and store, which 
they named Fort Franklin. The superintendence of these 
buildings was committed to Lieutenant Back, while Captain 

•^ Franklin's Second Journey, Intro. Chap. p. 15, 18. 



184 ARRIVAL AT WIUI-F, ISLAND. 

Franklin determined to descend the river, take a view of the 
state of the Polar Sea, and return to winter-quarters before 
the extreme cold should set in. 

In this voyage there occurred nothing worthy of particular 
notice till the arrival at Whale Island, where, though Mac- 
kenzie had the strongest reasons to conclude that he had 
reached the sea, he appears not to have been completely satis- 
fied on that, point. Probably his doubts arose from the fresh 
taste of the water. Franklin, however, proceeded beyond 
Whale Island, and reached the shore of the great Arctic 
Ocean. " Embarking," says he, " at eleven A. M., we con- 
tinued our course along the shore of Ellice Island, until we 
found its coast trending southward of east. There we landed, 
and were rejoiced at the sea-like appearance to the northward. 
An island was now discovered to the north-east, looking 
blue from its distance, towards which the boat was imme- 
diately directed. The water, which for the last eight miles 
had been very shallow, became gradually deeper, and of a 
more green colour, though still fresh, even when we had 
entirely lost sight of the eastern land. In the middle of the 
traverse we were caught by a strong contrary wind, against 
■which our crews cheerfully contended for five hours. Un- 
willing to return without attaining the object of our search, 
when the strength of the rowers was nearly exhausted the 
sails were set double-reefed, and our excellent boat mounted 
over the waves in a most buoyant manner, while an oppor- 
tune alteration of the wind enabled us in the course of 
another hour to fetch into smoother water under the shelter 
of the island. We then pulled across a line of strong rip- 
pie, v^hich marked the termination of the fresh water, that 
on the seaward side being brackish ; and in the further pro- 
gress of three miles to the island, we had the indescribable 
pleasure of finding the water decidedly salt. The sun was 
setting as the boat touched the beach ; we hastened to the 
most elevated part of the island, about two hundred and fifty 
feet high, to look around ; and never was a prospect more 
gratifying than that which lay open to us. The Rocky 
Mountains were seen from S.W. to W. ^N., and fi-om the 
latter point, round by the north, the sea appeared in all its 
majesty, entirely free from ice, and without any visible ob- 
struction to its navigation. Many seals and black and 
white whales were seen sporting on its waves, and the 



WINTER EMPLOYMENTS. 185 

whole scene was calculated to excite in our minds the most 
flattering expectations of our own success and that of our 
friends in the Hecla and the Fury."* Franklin pronounces 
a high encomium on the accuracy of Mackenzie, and con- 
siders him as completely entitled to the praise of having 
reached the Arctic Sea, although, owing to the frail con- 
struction of the Indian canoes, it was impossible for him 
to sail to the point where the water became salt. 

Having accomplished his design in this preliminary jour- 
ney, Franklin returned on 5th September to his winter- 
quarters on Great Bear Lake. About the same time Dr. 
Richardson arrived from his excursion to the north-eastern 
shores of the same extensive sheet of water, having com- 
pleted his survey as far as the influx of Dease's River, and 
ascertained that the first rapid was the best point to which 
the eastern detachment of the expedition should direct its 
course on their return from the Coppermine in the following 
season. Meantime the people were so busily employed that 
time never hung heavy on their hands, and the shortest day 
came almost unexpectedly upon them. The Canadians 
and Indians were engaged in fishing and hunting for the 
support of the whole party, and during the autumn the nets 
yielded daily eight hundred fish of the kind called herring- 
salmon. Four Dog-rib Indians, along with the two interpre- 
ters, Augustus and Ooligbuck, were employed in hunting rein- 
deer, and the sailors were divided into different parties, to 
whom separate duties were allotted ; such as attending on the 
nets, bringing home the venison killed by the hunters, felling, 
carrying, and splitting wood, and exercising themselves in 
running as letter-carriers on snow-shoes between Fort 
Franklin and two other small posts established on the Mac- 
kenzie and Slave Lake. A school also was opened, ia 
which, during the long winter evenings, the officers instructed 
the sailors in reading, writing, and arithmetic ; and during 
the hours of relaxation the hall was given up to the men to 
divert themselves with any game they chose ; on which oc- 
casions they were always joined by the officers. Sunday 
was invariably a day of rest, and the whole party attended 
divine service morning and evening. Besides this, the offi- 
cers had ample employment in noting down the thermo- 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 34-36. 
Q2 



186 APPROACH OF SPRING. 

metrical, raagnetical, and atmospherical observations, in writ' 
ing their journals, finishing their charts and drawings, and 
arranging the objects of natural history which had been 
collected.* Tiiey were amused by occasional visits of the 
Dog-rib Indians and various other tribes ; and Christmas- 
day falling on a Sunday, they on the succeeding evening 
gave a dance and supper, which was attended by sixty per- 
sons including savages. " Seldom," says Franklin, " in 
such a confined space as our hall, or among the same num- 
ber of persons, was there a greater variety of character or 
greater confusion of tongues. The party consisted of Eng- 
hshmen, Highlanders (who mostly conversed with each 
other in Gaelic), Canadians (who spoke French), Esqui- 
maux, Chipewyans, Dog-ribs, Hare Indians, Cree women 
and children, all mingled together in perfect harmony, while 
the amusements were varied by English, Gaelic, and French 
songs."t 

The spring now approached, and the migratory animals, 
which observe with beautiful exactness their periods of de- 
parture and arrival, began to appear, gladdening the yet 
wintry face of nature. On 5th October the last swan had 
passed to the southward, and on the 11th the last brown 
duck was noticed. On 6th May the first swan was seen, 
and on the 8th the brown ducks reappeared on the lake. 
The mosses began to sprout, and various singing birds and 
orioles, along with some swifts and white geese, arrived 
soon after. It is remarked by Dr. Richardson, that the 
singing birds, which were silent on the banks of the Bear 
Lake during the day, serenaded their mates at midnight ; at 
which time, however, it was quite light. On 20th May the 
little stream which flowed past the fort burst its icy chains, 
and the laughing geese arrived to give renewed cheerful- 
ness to the lake. Soon after this the winter-green began 
to push forth its flowers ; and under the increasing warmth 
of the sun's rays the whole face of nature underwent a de- 
lightful change. The snow gradually melted, the ice broke 
«p from the shores of the lake, the northern sky became 
red and laminous at midnight, the dwarf-birch and willows 
expanded their leaves, and by the 3d June the anemones, 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 54-56. 
t tbid. p. 67 



EMBARKATION ON THE MACKENZIE. 187 

the tussilago, the Lapland rose, and other early plants, were 
in fall flower.* 

Admonished by these pleasing changes. Captain Franklin 
prepared to set out, and on 1 5th June the equipments for 
the beats were completed. Fourteen men, including Au- 
gustus the Esquimaux interpreter, accompanied the com- 
mander-in-chief and Lieutenant Back in the two larger boats, 
the Lion and the Reliance ; while nine men, and Oolig- 
buck another interpreter, attended Dr. Richardson and Mr. 
Kendall in the Dolphin and the Union. Spare blankets, and 
all that could be useful for the voyage, or as presents to the 
Esquimaux, were divided between the eastern and western 
parties. On the Sunday before their departure, the officers 
and men assembled at divine worship, and, in addition to 
the usual service, the special protection of the Almighty 
was implored for the enterprise upon which they were about 
to be engaged. All was now ready, and on Tuesday, 28th 
June, they embarked upon the Mackenzie, with the naviga- 
tion of which the reader is already familiar. On the Ith 
July they reached that part where the river divides into 
various channels, and the two parties had determined to 
pursue different directions. The expedition which was to 
follow the western branch, commanded by Captain Frank- 
lin, embarked first at Dr. Richardson's desire, with a salute 
of three hearty cheers from their companions, and as they 
dropped down the river and passed round a point of land they 
perceived their friends who were to follow the eastern branch 
employed in the bustle of embarkation. All were in high 
spirits, and it was impossible not to contrast their present 
complete state of equipment with the circumstances of their 
first disastrous journey. 

On reaching the mouth of the Mackenzie, the western 
expedition came almost immediately into contact with the 
Esquimaux. Captain Franklin observed an encampment 
upon a neighbouring island, and instantly proceeded to open 
a communication. A selection of presents was made, and at 
the same time every man was directed to have his gun ready 
for use. Having adopted these precautions, they steered 
direct for the island with their ensigns flying. The boats 
touched ground when about a mile from the beach. Signs 

* Richardson's Meteorological Tables. 



188 ESQUIMAUX. 

were made to the Esquimaux to come off, and the English 
pulled back a little to await their arrival in deeper water. 
Three canoes, each carrying only a single person, pushed 
off, and these were followed rapidly by others ; so that in a 
few minutes the whole space between the boats and the 
shore was alive with those little vessels, which they name 
kayaks. An attempt was at first made to count them, and 
the sailors got the length of seventy ; but they increased in 
such quick succession as to baffle their further efforts. 

At first every thing proceeded in a friendly manner. Au- 
gustus, after delivering a present, informed them, that if the 
English succeeded in finding a navigable channel for large 
ships, an advantageous trade would be opened. This in- 
timation was received with a deafening shout, and the sight 
of the presents which had been carried away by the three 
foremost kayaks inflamed the cupidity of their companions ; 
so that the boats were in a moment surrounded by nearly 
three hundred persons, offering for sale their bows, arrows, 
and spears, with a violence and perseverance which became 
at last exceedingly troublesome, and Captain Franklin di- 
rected the boats to be put to seaward. At this moment a 
kayak was upset by one of the oars of the Lion, and its 
unhappy possessor was struck by the accident with his head 
in the mud and his heels in the air. He was instantly ex- 
tricated, wrapped in a warm great-coat, and placed in the 
boat, where, although at first excessively frightened and 
angry, he soon became reconciled to his situation, and look- 
ing about, discovered many bales and other articles which 
had hitherto been carefully concealed. His first impulse 
was to ask for every thing he saw, his next to be indignant 
that his requests were not granted ; and on joining his com- 
panions, as they afterward learned, he harangued on the 
inexhaustible riches of the Lion, and proposed a plan for a 
general attack and pillage of both the boats. This scheme 
was immediately carried into execution ; and although the 
plunderers at first affected to be partly in sport, matters soon 
assumed a serious complexion. Two of the most powerful 
men, leaping on board, seized Captain Franklin, forced him 
to sit between them, and when he shook them off, a third 
took his station in front to catch his arm whenever he 
attempted to raise his gun or lay his hand on the broad dagger 
which hung by his side. During this assault the two boats 



VIOLENT CONDUCT OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 189 

were violently dragged to the shore, and a numerous party, 
stripping to the waist and brandishing their long sharp 
knives, ran to the Reliance, and commenced a regular pillage, 
handing the articles to the women, who, ranged in a row be- 
hind, quickly conveyed them out of sight. No sooner was 
the bow cleared of one set of marauders than another party 
commenced their operations at the stern. The Lion was 
beset by smaller numbers, ^nd her crew, by firmly keeping 
their seats on the canvass cover spread over the cargo, and 
beating off the natives with the butt-end of their muskets, 
succeeded in preventing any article of importance from 
being carried away. Irritated, at length, by their frequent 
failure, the Esquimaux made a simultaneous charge, and, 
leaping on board, began to wrest the daggers and shot-belts 
from the sailors, and to strike with their knives. In the 
midst of this attack, when the crew in the Lion were nearly 
overpowered and their commander disarmed, all at once the 
natives took to their heels, and concealed themselves behind 
the drift-timber and canoes on the beach. This sudden 
panic was occasioned by Captain Back, whose boat at this 
time had been got afloat, commanding his crew to level their 
muskets, — a proceeding which was immediately observed 
by the Esquimaux, though not noticed by Captain Frank- 
lin's men, who were wholly occupied in defending them- 
selves. The Lion happily floated soon after ; and as both 
boats pulled off. Captain Franklin desired Augustus to in- 
form some of the Esquimaux, who manifested a disposition 
to follow and renew the attack, that he would shoot the first 
man who ventured to approach within musket-range.* 

In the evening, Augustus anxiously entreated permission 
to attend a conference of his countrymen on the shore, to 
which he had been formally invited. The courage and 
fidelity of this person had much endeared him to the Eng- 
lish, and it was not without hesitation that Captain Frank- 
lin agreed to his request, as he stated his determination to 
reprove the natives for their disgraceful conduct. He was 
at length allowed to go, and by the time he reached the 
shore the number of Esquimaux amounted to forty, all of 
them armed. On landing, he walked undauntedly into the 
middle of the assembly, and addressed them in the following 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 101-107. 



190 SPEECH OF AUGUSTUS. 

animated speech, which he afterward repeated to his Eng 
lish friends : — '* Y^our conduct," said he, " has been very 
bad, and unlike all other Esquimaux. Some of you even 
stole from me, your countryman — but that I do not mind. 
I only regret that you should have treated in this violent 
manner the white people, who came solely to do you kind- 
ness. My tribe were in the same unhappy state in which 
you now are before the white people came to Churchill ; 
but at present they are supplied with every thing they need ; 
and you see that I am well clothed, I get every thing I want, 
and am very comfortable. You cannot expect, after the 
transactions of this day, that these people vyill ever bring 
any articles to your country again, unless you show your 
contrition by returning the stolen goods. The white people 
love the Esquimaux, and wish to show them the same kind- 
ness that they bestow upon the Indians. Do not deceive 
yourselves, and suppose that they are afraid of you ; I tell 
you they are not, and that it is entirely owing to their hu- 
manity tliat many of you were not killed to-day, for they 
have all guns with which they can destroy you either near 
or at a distance. I also have a gun, and can assure you 
that if a white man had fallen, I would have been the first 
to have revenged his death." During this speech, which 
was delivered, as they perceived from the boats, with much 
energy and spirited gesticulation, the Esquimaux expressed 
their approbation by frequent shouts, and on its conclusion 
made a very penitent, though somewhat singular apology : 
*' They had never seen white men before," they said, " and 
really all the things in the boats were so beautiful and de- 
sirable that it was impossible not to steal them. As they 
were very anxious, however, for the friendship and trade of 
the white men, they solemnly promised never to repeat such 
conduct, and, at the request of Augustus, sent back the 
large kettle, the tent, and some pairs of shoes which they 
liad carried oif."* The interpreter was afterward invited 
to a dance, and a friendly understanding seemed to be es- 
tablished ; but Captain Franklin soon discovered that the 
professions of the natives were hollow and treacherous ; and 
nothing but his jealous precautions saved him and his com- 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 108, 109. 



FRIENDLY ESQUIMAUX. 191 

panions from massacre, in which it had been resolved to in- 
clude the faithful Augustus. 

' Their voyage along the coast in the direction of west- 
north-west, after a progress of twelve miles, was impeded 
by the ice stretching from the shore far to seaward. The 
boats were in consequence hauled up ; and as the frozen 
masses were piled round to the height of thirty feet, it be- 
came necessary to await the breaking up of this formidable 
barrier. Having gone to sleep, the officers were startled at 
midnight by the guard calling to arms : three Esquimaux, 
belonging to a large party encamped at some distance, had 
stolen forward, and been only discovered when close at hand. 
Alarmed at the appearance of the men, who stood to their 
arms, the strangers were on the point of discharging their 
arrows, when they were arrested by the loud voice of Au- 
gustus, who explained the object of the expedition, and di- 
lated upon the advantages which they would derive from it. 
A present confirmed his statement, and an amicable inter- 
course was opened, — a line, however, being first drawn at a 
certain distance from the tents, across which no Esquimaux 
was to pass under the penalty of being instantly shot. 
Against this they made no remonstrance, only remarking, 
when informed of the treacherous conduct of the natives at 
the mouth of Mackenzie River, that "these were bad men, 
altogether different from them, and never failed either to 
steal or quarrel whenever an opportunity was offered." 
The delight exhibited by these people, including the most 
elderly among them, on receiving any little present, was ex- 
actly similar to that of children when they get hold of toys. 
They ran from one thing to another ; examined with rest- 
less curiosity every part of Augustus's dress, who, to gratify 
his vanity, had put on his gayest apparel ; and, ignorant of 
the uses of the articles presented to them, they walked about 
with cod-fish hooks and awls dangling from the nose, and 
copper thimbles strung to their trousers or rein-deer jackets. 
The men were robust, and taller than those seen on the 
east coast by Captain Parry, though their manner of life 
appeared to be nearly the same. With the broad nose and 
small eyes, which peculiarly distinguish the whole Esqui- 
maux tribes, they had the cheek-bones less projecting than 
those of the eastern coast. From a constant exposure 
to the glare of the ice amd snow, the whole party were 



102 DRESS AND MANNERS OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 

tifriicted with sore eyes, and two of the old men seemed 
nearly bUnd. They wore the hair on the upper lip and 
chin, and every man had pieces of bone or shells thrust 
through the septum of the nose, while holes were pierced 




on each side of the under lip, in which were placed circular 
pieces of ivory with a large blue bead in the centre,— ornd- 
rnents which they valued highly, and declined selling. 
Their clothes consisted of a jacket of rein-deer skin, wuii 
a skirt behind and before, and a small hood ; breeches of the 
same material, and larire seal-skin bouts. The d.ress of the 
females diiiered from that of the men only in their wearing 



POINTS SABINE AND KAY. 193 

wide trousers, and in the size of their hoods, which did not 
fit close to the head, but were made large jfor the purpose 
of receiving their children : these were ornamented with 
fitripes of different coloured skins, and round the top was 
fastened a band of wolf's hair, made to stand erect. The 
women were from four feet and a half to four feet three- 
quarters high, and some of the younger, though too cor- 
pulent, were pretty ; their black hair was tastefully turned 
up from behind to the top of the head, and braided with 
strings of white and blue beads and cords of white deer- 
skin. Both men and women were much pleased by having 
their portraits sketched by Captain Back ; and one young 
lady, who sat for a full-length and chose the extraordinary 
attitude of stuffing both hands into her breeches-pockets, 
interrupted the labours of the draughtsman by repeatedly 
jumping into the air, and smiling in a very ludicrous and 
irresistible manner. The men were armed with bows and 
arrows, long knives, which they concealed in the shirt- 
sleeve, and spears tipped with bone.* 

The Esquimaux had predicted, that as soon as a strong 
wind began to blow from the land it would loosen the ice ; 
and on 12th July a heavy rain with a pretty high gale set 
in, and opened up a passage. The boats accordingly were 
launched ; and, passing a wide bay named by the com- 
mander after his friends Captains Sabine and Kay, they 
were suddenly arrested by a compact body of ice, and en- 
veloped at the same time in a dense fog. On attempting to 
pull back for the purpose of landing, they discovered that 
the ice had closed between them and the shore. In this 
situation only one alternative was left, which was to pull to 
seaward and trace the outer border of the ice. This they 
at last effected ; though a sudden change of wind brought 
on a heavy swell, and surrounded them with floating masses 
of ice, which threatened to crush the boats to pieces. 
They succeeded, however, after five hours employed in 
pulling in and out between these floating icebergs, in reach- 
ing the shore and landing a little to the west of Point Sabine. 
After a detention of *^J9o days they proceeded as far as Point 
Kay ; but being here again impeded by a compact body of 
ice, which extended to seaward as far as the eye could 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 118, 119. 
R 



194 HERSCHEL ISLAND. 

reach, they were obliged to encamp and wait patiently for 
the first strong breeze from the land. 

The time of their sojourn in these arctic solitudes was 
pleasantly occupied in making astronomical observations, 
collecting specimens of the plants in flower, sketching 
Bcenery, and completing charts of the coast. Augustus 
went in search of his countrymen, and returned at night 
with a young Esquimaux and his wife, who, after a few 
presents, became loquacious, and informed them that the 
ice would soon break up. Symptoms of this desirable change 
were accordingly observed next day, and with great labour 
they reached Herschel Island. At the moment they made 
the shore a herd of rein-deer came bounding. down to the 
beach, pursued by three Esquimaux hunters, and imme- 
diately took the water, while the natives, startled at sight 
of the strangers, gazed for a moment, consulted among 
themselves, changed the heads of their arrows, and pre- 
pared their bows. Their hostile intentions, however, were 
laid aside when they were addressed by Augustus ; and in 
the evening a large party arrived, bringing dried meat, fish, 
and game, for which they received presents in exchange, 
which set them singing and dancing round the encampment 
for the greater part of the night. 

From these people was collected some curious information. 
They stated that they procured beads, knives, and iron 
principally from Esquimaux residing far away to the west, 
and also from Indians who came annually from the interior 
by a river directly opposite the encampment, to which Cap- 
tain Franklin gave the name of Mountain Indian River.* 
Whence the Indians or the Esquimaux obtained these 
goods they could not tell, but supposed it was from Kabloo- 
nacht or white men, at a great distance to the west. The 
articles were not of British manufacture, from which Cap- 
tain Franklin concluded that the Kabloonacht must be the 
Russian fur-traders. 

It was with great diflRculty that the boats made even a 
short distance from Herschel Island. The ice repeatedly 
closed in upon them, leaving only a narrow channel, often 
too shallow to float the boats, and dense fogs now became 
frequent, rendering their navigation peculiarly hazardous* 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p, 130, 131. 



CLARENCE RIVER. 195 

These dreary curtains hanging over the ice gave it the 
appearance of water, and exposed them to the danger of 
being shut in by an impenetrable barrier when they expected 
an open sea. They continued their course, however, till 
they came abreast of Mount Conybeare, when they en- 
camped, and crossing a swampy level ascended to the sum- 
mit, from which they enjoyed a striking view into the inte- 
rior. Three noble ranges of mountains were seen parallel 
to the Buckland chain, but of less altitude, while the pros- 
pect was bounded by a fourth range, mingling their pyra- 
midal summits with the clouds, and covered with snow. 
From this last encampment their advance was extremely 
slow. The boats were pushed forward through small lanes, 
the utmost vigilance being necessary to prevent their being 
entirely shut in, as a few hours often made essential 
changes, and their frail craft could only be saved by being 
frequently hauled upon the beach. The calm weather also 
retarded them, and they earnestly longed for a strong gale 
to break up the compacted fields of ice, and permit them to 
continue their voyage. 

After a detention of some days their wishes seemed about 
to be gratified ; at midnight, on the 2.5th July, a strong 
south-westerly breeze sprang up, accompanied by thunder 
and lightning ; but in the morning an impenetrable fog 
hung over the sea. On the land side the prospect was 
equally dreary ; an extensive swamp, in which they sank 
ankle-deep at every step, prevented any excursions into the 
interior, and the clouds of mosquitoes which for ever 
buzzed around them kept them in a perpetual irritation. At 
length, however, the fog dispersed, disclosing an open lane of 
water about half a mile from shore ; following its course for 
eight miles they came to the mouth of a wide river, which 
had its rise in the British range of mountains. Its course 
approached near the line of demarcation between the Ame-< 
rican dominions of Great Britain and Russia, and Captain 
Franklin named it the Clarence River, after his present 
majesty, then lord high admiral. On the most elevated 
part of the coast near its mouth they erected a pile of drift- 
wood, under which was deposited a tin box, containing a 
royal silver medal, and an account of the proceedings of the 
expedition ; after which the union flag was hoisted with 
three hearty cheers. 



196 MOUNT COPLESTON. 

They now continued their voyage, though often beset by 
ice and interrupted by fogs, and passing the boundary be- 
tween Russian and British America descried an encamp- 
ment of natives on a low island, surrounded by many oomiaks 
and kayaks guarded by Esquimaux dogs, while their mas- 
ters were fast asleep in the tents. The interpreter being 
despatched to arouse them, a singular scene took place. At 
his first call a little squabby woman rushed out in a state of 
perfect nudity, uttered a loud yell, and instantly ran back 
again to rouse her husband, who, shouting out that stran- 
gers were at hand, awoke the whole band. In a moment all 
seized their arms, and without waiting to put on their deer- 
skin breeches or jackets, swarmed out upon the beach, which 
in an instant was covered with fifty-four grown-up persons 
completely naked, very outrageous, dirty, and ugly. A 
short parley quieted their fears, an interchange of presents 
took place, and the boats crossed Camden Bay, having in 
view the noble range of the Romanzoff Mountains, whose 
peaks were covered with snow. 

Soon after they arrived at the mouth of a river, which 
discharged into the sea so great a volume of water that 
even three miles from land the taste was perfectly fresh ; 
and having reached latitude 70° 7', farther progress was 
prevented by ice closely packed on the outer border of a 
reef, and they discovered that the great chain of the Rocky 
Mountains either terminated abreast of their present situa- 
tion, or receded so far to the southward as to fade away iit 
the distance. During their detention Captain Back, to 
whose pencil we are indebted for many admirable drawings 
of arctic scenery, made a sketch of the most western moun- 
tain, which they named Mount Copleston.* Various cir- 
cumstances now warned them that much further progress 
along this inhospitable coast was impracticable. The fogs 
became more frequent and perilous, the water was often so 
shallow that even at two miles from shore the boats 
grounded, and on getting into deeper soundings, the re- 
peated shocks received from masses of floating ice severely 
injured their timbers, especially those of the Lion, which 
was very leaky. Still they struggled on from Flaxman 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 150. See the Vignette to this 
volume. 



ILLUSIONS OF THE FOG. 197 

Isiand along a low, desolate shore, rendered more dreary by 
the stormy weather, till on the 10th a gale brought along 
with it a thick fog, and they hauled up the boats, encamping 
on a low spot, which they named Foggy Island. Here they 
kindled fires, dried their clothes, which were completely 
wet with the moisture of the atmosphere, and amused 
themselves in their murky prison by proceeding in search of 
rein-deer. The fog caused frequent and sometimes ludi- 
crous mistakes ; and on one occasion, after the men had 
spent a long time in stealing upon some deer, and were 
congratulating themselves on coming within shot, to their 
amazement the animals took wing and disappeared in the 
fog, with a scream and cackle which at once declared their 
genus, and seemed to deride the credulity of their pursuers. 
•' We witnessed with regret," says Captain Franklin, " in 
these short rambles, the havoc which this dreary weather 
made among the flowers. Many which had been blooming 
upon our arrival were now lying prostrate and withered, 
and these symptoms of decay could not fail painfully to re- 
mind us that the term of our operations was fast approach- 
ing. Often at this time did every one express a wish that 
we had some decked vessel, in which the provisions could 
be secured from the injury of salt-water, and the crew 
sheltered when they required rest, that we might quit this 
shallow coast and steer at once towards Icy Cape."* So 
frequently did they attempt to fulfil this desire, and so per- 
petually were they driven back by the fog closing in upon 
them, that the sailors declared the island was enchanted. 
Indeed, to a superstitious mind the appearances furnished 
some ground for believing it. The fog would often dis- 
perse, and permit a short glimpse of a point about three 
miles distant, bearing north-west-by-west ; in a momen 
every hand was at work, the boats were launched, the crews 
embarked ; but before they could be dragged into deep 
water the spirit of the mist once more drew his impenetra- 
ble curtain round them, and after resting a while on their 
oars, they were compelled to pull back to their old quarters, 
Scarcely had they kindled a fire and begun to dry their 
clothes, soaked with wading over the flats, when the fog 
again opened, the boats were launched, and the desirei* 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 154. 
R2 



19S APPROACH OF WINTER. 

point almost gained ; but their tormentor once more en- 
veloped earth and ocean in a thicker gloom than before. 
" Fog is, of all others," says Captain Franklin, " the most 
hazardous state of the atmosphere for navigation in an icy 
sea, especially where it is accompanied by strong breezes ; 
but particularly so for boats where the shore is unapproach- 
able. If caught by a gale, a heavy swell, or drifting ice, 
the result must be their wreck, or the throwing their pro- 
visions overboard, to lighten them so as to proceed in shoal- 
water. Many large pieces of ice were seen on the border of 
the shallow water, and from the lowness of the temperature 
we concluded that the main body was at no great distance."* 
The nights were now lengthening : the grasses and the 
whole aspect of the vegetation was autumnal ; their stores 
of drift-wood had been so much drawn upon, that though the 
tents were wet through, and they were for warmth obliged 
to wrap their feet in blankets, no fire was allowed except 
to cook the victuals. The provisions were barely sufficient 
for the support of the party on their return, while the fre- 
quency of the fogs, the shallowness which prevented the 
boats from floating, the heavy swell that, as the wind 
freshened, rose upon the flats, compelled them to haul far- 
ther from land, and the danger which in doing so they 
necessarily incurred from the drift-ice, — formed an accumu- 
lation of difficulties which rendered their progress from 
Point Anxiety across Prudhoe Bay to Return Reef the most 
discouraging and painful part of the whole voyage. It wa3 
now the 16th of August, and the boats, though the exer- 
tions of the crews had been unwearied, were only half-way 
between the mouth of Mackenzie River and Icy Cape. The 
young ice had already begun to form at night on the pools 
of fresh water, and the mind of the commander recurred 
naturally and wisely to his former experience. He recol- 
lected that only one day later, and in a latitude two degrees 
more southerly, he had in his first voyage encountered 
severe storms of wind and snow, and that in another fort- 
night the winter would set in with all us horrors. Already 
the sun began to sink below the horizon, and with thia 
change the mean temperature of the atmosphere rapidly 
decreased ; the deer were hastening from the coast ; the 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 156. 



THE EXPEDITION COMPELLED TO RETURN. 199 

Esquimaux had ceased to appear ; no winter houses gave 
indications that this remote coast was inhabited ; and the 
autumnal parties of geese hourly winging their flight to the 
westward, indicated that winter had already surprised them 
in their polar solitudes. It had been Franklin's great object 
to double Icy Cape, and meet the expedition under Captain 
Beechey in Kotzebue's Inlet ; but from the distance and the 
advanced season this was now impracticable. On the other 
hand, his instructions directed him, " if, in consequence of 
slow progress, or other unforeseen accident, it should re- 
main doubtful whether the expedition should be able to reach 
Kotzebue's Inlet the same season, to commence their return 
on the 15th or 20th of August." To reUnquish the great 
object of his ambition ; and to disappoint the confidence 
reposed in his exertions, was a sacrifice which cost him 
no ordinary pain ; and had he been then aware of the 
fact (with which the reader will be immediately acquainted) 
that the barge of the Blossom was at that moment only 146 
miles distant, we have his own authority for stating that 
no difficulties or dangers would have prevailed on him to 
return ; but, under the circumstances in which he was 
placed, to make any further effort in advance was incom- 
patible with the higher duties which he owed to his officers 
and crew. After a mature consideration of every thing, 
he formed the reluctant conclusion that they had reached 
the point where perseverance would have been rashness, 
and their best efforts must have only led to a more calamitous 
failure.* It was resolved therefore to return ; and on the 
morning of the 18th of August they began their retreat to the 
Mackenzie River, which, without any material danger, with 
the exception of a severe gale encountered off Point Kay, they 
regained on the 4th of September. Thence they proceeded 
to Fort Franklin, where they met Dr. Richardson, Mr. Ken- 
dall, and their friends of the eastern expedition, who, after 
a prosperous and interesting voyage to the mouth of the 
Coppermine, had returned to the Fort on the 1st September. 
Of this interesting journey our limits will only permit a 
very cursory glance. Fortunately for the eastern expe- 
dition, the coast between the mouths of the Mackenzie and 
the Coppermine Rivers presented none of those serious 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 161, 162, 165. 



200 EASTERN EXPEDITION. 

obstacles which at every step were starting up in the dreary 
and protracted route of the western party ; and they conse- 
quently accomplished a voyage of about 500 miles, between 
the 4th of July and 8th of August. It was eminently suc- 
cessful in the accurate survey of this hitherto unexplored 
coast, but unvaried by any remarkable incidents. The Es- 
quimaux on various parts of the coast were more numerous, 
pacific, comfortable, and wealthy than the western tribes; 
but their civilization had not eradicated the propensities for 
thieving. On one occasion the boats were surrounded by a 
fleet of about fifty kayaks, and an attack was made exactly sim- 
ilar to that upon Franklin ; but though the object was the 
same it was pursued with less vigour, and the moment the 
sailors levelled their muskets the whole party dispersed with 
precipitation. 

On arriving at Atkinson Island they discovered, under 
shelter of a chain of sand-hills drifted by the wind to the 
height of thirty-feet, a small Esquimaux town, consisting 
of seventeen winter houses, besides a larger building, which 
Dr. Richardson at first conjectured to be a house of assembly 
for the tribe. Ooligbuck the interpreter, however, whose 
ideas were more gross and commonplace, pronounced it to 
be a general eating-room. " This large building," says Dr. 
Richardson, " was in the interior a square of twenty-seven 
feet, having the log roof supported on two strong ridge-poles 
two feet apart, and resting on four upright posts. The floor 
in the centre formed of split logs, dressed and laid with great 
care, was surrounded by a raised border about three feet 
wide, which was no doubt meant for seats. The walls three 
feet high, were inclined outwards, for the convenience of 
leaning the back against them, and the ascent to the door, 
which was on the south side, was formed of logs. I'he 
outside, which was covered with earth, had nearly a hemi- 
spherical form, and round its base were ranged the sculls of 
twenty-one whales. There was a square hole in the roof, 
and the central log of the floor had a basin-shaped cavity 
one foot in diameter, which was perhaps intended for a 
lamp. The general attention to comfort in the construction 
of the village, and the erection of a building of such magni- 
tude, requiring a union of purpose in a considerable number 
of people, were evidences of a more advanced progress 
towards civilization than had yet been found among the 



NATIVES OF HARROWBY BAY. 20 ^ 

Esquimaux. Whale-sculls were confined to the large builds 
ing, and to one of the dwelling-houses, which had three or 
four placed round it. Many wooden trays and hand-barrows 
for carrying whale-blubber were lying on the ground, most 
of them in a state of decay."* 

On making the traverse of Harrowby Bay, land was seen 
round the bottom ; and on nearing shore twelve tents were 
distinguished on an adjoining eminence. When the boats 
appeared, a woman who was walking along the beach, gave 
the alarm, and the men rushed out, brandishing their knives, 
and employing the most furious expressions. In vain 
Ooligbuck endeavoured to calm their apprehensions, explain- 
ing that the strangers were friends ; they only replied by 
shouts, leaps, or hideous grimaces, intended to inspire terror, 
and displayed great agility, frequently standing on one foot 
and throwing the other nearly as high as their head. Dr. 
Richardson, nothing intimidated by these gesticulations, be- 
thought himself of enouncing, at the highest key he could 
reach, the word " Noowoerlawgo," meaning, " I wish to 
barter," and the sound operated like a spell. The savages 
instantly became quiet ; one of them ran to his kayak, pad- 
dled off to the boats, and was followed by crowds, who fear- 
lessly came alongside, readily exchanging bows, arrows, 
spears, and dressed seal-skins, for bits of old iron-hoop, files, 
and beads. " The females," says Richardson, " unlike 
those of the Indian tribes, had much handsomer features 
than the men ; and one young woman of the party would 
have been deemed pretty even in Europe. Our presents 
seemed to render them perfectly happy, and they danced 
with such ecstasy in their slender boats as to incur more 
than once great hazard of being overset. A bundle of strings 
of beads being thrown into an oomiak, it was caught by an 
old woman, who hugged the treasure to her breast with the 
strongest expression of rapture ; while another elderly dame, 
who had stretched out her arms in vain, became the very 
picture of despair. On its being explained, however, that 
the present was intended for the whole party, an amicable 
division took place ; and to show their gratitude, they sang 
a song to a pleasing air, keeping time with their oars. They 
gave us many pressing invitations to pass the night at their 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 217 



202 RETURN TO FORT FRANKLIN. 

tents, in which they were joined by the men ; and to excite 
our liberality the mothers drew their children out of their 
wide boots, where they are accustomed to carry them naked, 
and holding them up, begged beads for them. For a time 
their entreaties were successful ; but being desirous of 
getting clear of our visiters before breakfast-time, we at 
length told them the stock was exhausted, and they took 
leave."* 

The voyage, owing to the clear atmosphere, the unen- 
cumbered state of the coast, and the abundant supply of 
provisions, was pursued with ease and comfort ; and on 8th 
August having made a bold cape, rising precipitously from 
the sea to the height of 350 feet. Dr. Richardson and Mr. 
Kendall climbed the promontory, and descried in the distance 
the gap in the hills at Bloody Fall, through which the Cop- 
permine holds its course. Delighted with the prospect of so 
near a termination of their labours, they communicated the 
intelligence to the crew, who received it with expressions 
of profound gratitude to the Divine Being for his protection 
during the voyage. On reaching the river the men were in 
excellent condition, fresh and vigorous for the march across 
the barren grounds on their return to Fort Franklin, which, 
as already mentioned, they reached in safety on the 1st of 
September. On approaching within a few days' journey of 
the fort, a pleasant adventure occurred, characteristic of 
Indian gratitude and friendship. The party had supped, 
and most of the men were retired to rest, when Mr. Ken- 
dall, in sweeping the horizon with his telescope, descried 
three Indians coming down a hill towards the encampment. 
More moss was thrown on the fire, and the St. George's 
ensign hoisted on the end of a musket, to show the comers 
that they were approaching friends ; but they hid the 
youngest of their number in a ravine, and approached slowly 
and with suspicion. Mr. Kendall and Dr. Richardson im- 
mediately went unarmed to meet them, and as they came 
up one held his bow and arrows ready in his hand, and the 
other cocked his gun ; but as soon as they recognised the 
doctor's dress, — the same he had worn the preceding au- 
tumn in his voyage round Bear Lake, and which was 
familiar to most of the Hare Indians, — they shouted in an 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 226. 



BEECUEVS VOYAGE. 203 

ecstasy of joy, shook hands most cordially, and called loudly 
for the young lad whom they had hid to come up. " The 
meeting," says Dr. Richardson, " was highly gratifying to 
ourselves as well as to the kind natives ; for they seemed to 
be friends come to rejoice with us on the happy termination 
of our voyage."* 

It had naturally occurred to government, that if the expe- 
ditions under Captains Parry and Franklin should be success- 
ful, their stores would be exhausted by the time they reached 
Behring's Strait. It was certain also that Franklin would 
be destitute of any means of conveyance to Europe ; and 
to supply these wants government resolved that a vessel 
should be sent out to await their arrival in Behring's Strait. 
For this purpose, accordingly. Captain F. W. Beechey sailed 
in the Blossom from Spithead on the 19th May, 1825. The 
vessel was a twenty-six gun ship ; but on this occasion 
mounted only sixteen. She was partially strengthened, and 
adapted to this peculiar service by increasing her stowage. 
A boat was also supplied to be used as a tender, built as large 
as the space on deck would allow, schooner-rigged, decked, 
and fitted up in the most complete manner. Cloth, beads, cut- 
lery, and various other articles of traffic, were put on board, 
and a variety of antiscorbutics were added to the usual 
allowance of provision. Aware that he must traverse a 
large portion of the globe hitherto little explored, and that 
a considerable period would elapse before his presence was 
required on the coast of America, Captain Beechey was in- 
structed to survey the parts of the Pacific within his reach, 
of which it was important to navigators that a more correct 
delineation should be laid down. These observations were 
not, however, to retard his arrival at the appointed rendez- 
vous later than the 10th of July, 1826 ; and he was directed 
to remain at Behring's Strait to the end of October, or to 
as late a period as the season would admit, without incurring 
the risk of spending the winter there. During this interval 
he was to navigate from Kotzebue's Sound northward, and 
afterward to continue in an easterly course along the main 
shore as far as the ice would allow. Captain Beechey's 
survey of various portions of the Pacific does not fall withia 
the plan of this work. 

* Franklin's Second Journey, p. 374, 



204 NATIVES OF CAPE PRINCE OF WALES. 

On the 2d of June, having left the Sandwich Isles, h& 
shaped his course for Kamtschatka, and on the 27th was 
becahned within six miles of Petropalauski. The best 
guides to this harbour are a range of high mountains, on 
one of which, upwards of 11,000 feet in height, a volcano 
is in constant action. It was a serene and beautiful evening 
when they approached this remote quarter of the world, 
and all were struck with the magnificence of the mountains 
capped with perennial snow, and rising in solemn grandeur 
one above the other. At intervals the volcano emitted dark 
columns of smoke ; and from a sprinkling of black spots 
upon the snow to the leeward it was conjectured there had 
been a recent eruption. From Petropalauski Captain Bee- 
chey sailed on the 1st of July for Kotzebue's Sound. " Wf 
approached," says he, " the strait which separates the twc 
great continents of Asia and America, on one of those 
beautiful still nights well known to all who have visited the 
arctic regions, when the sky is without a cloud, and when the 
midnight sun, scarcely his own diameter below the horizon, 
tinges with a bright hue all the northern circle. Our ship, 
propelled by an increasing breeze, glided rapidly along a 
smooth sea, startling from her path flocks of aquatic birds, 
whose flight in the deep silence of the scene could be traced 
by the ear to a great distance." Having closed in with the 
American shore some miles northward of Cape Prince of 
Wales, they were visited by a little Esquimaux squadron 
belonging to a village situated on a low sandy island. The 
natives readily sold every thing they possessed, and were 
cheerful and good-humoured, though exceedingly noisy and 
energetic. Their bows were more slender than those of the 
islanders to the southward, but made on the same principle, 
with drift-pine, assisted with thongs of hide or pieces of 
whalebone placed at the back, and neatly bound with small 
cord. The points of their arrows were of bone, flmt, or 
iron, and their spears headed with the same materials. 
Their dress was similar to that of the other tribes on the 
coast. It consisted of a shirt, which reached half-way down 
the thigh, with long sleeves and a hood of rein-deer skin, 
and edged with gray or white fox- fur. Besides this they 
had a jacket of eider-drake skins sewed together, which, 
Avhen engaged in war, they wore below their other dress, 
reckoning it a tolerably efficient protection against an arrow 



AURORA BOREALIS. 205 

or a spear-thrust. In wet weather they threw over the fur 
dress a shirt made of the entrails of the whale, which, being 
well saturated with oil and grease, was water-tight ; and 
they also used breeches of deer's hide and seal-skin boots, 
to the upper end of which were fixed strings of sea-horse 
hide. It was their fashion to tie one of these strings round 
the waist, and attach to it a long tuft of hair, the wing of a 
bird, or sometimes a fox's tail, which, dangling behind as 
they walked, gave them a vidiculous appearance, and may 
probably have occasioned the report of the Tschuktschi 
recorded in Muller that the people of this country have tails 
like dogs.* 

On the 22d July, the ship anchored in Kotzebue's Sound, 
and after exploring a deep inlet on its northern shore, 
which they named Hotham Inlet, proceeded to Chamisso 
Island, where the Blossom was to await Captain Franklin. 
A discretionary power had, however, been permitted to 
Captain Beechey, of employing the period of his stay in 
surveying the coast, provided this could be dojne without the 
risk of missing Captain Franklin. Having accordingly 
directed the barge to keep in-shore on the look-out for the 
land-party, he sailed to the northward, and doubling Cape 
Krusenstern, completed an examination of the coast by 
Cape Thomson, Point Hope, Cape Lisburn, Cape Beaufort, 
and Icy Cape, the farthest point reached by Captain Cook. 
As there were here strong indications of the ice closing in, 
and his instructions were positive to keep in open water if 
possible, he determined to return to Kotzebue's Sound, 
while he despatched the barge under Mr. Elson and M. Smyth 
to trace the coast to the north-eastward, as far as they could 
navigate. 

On this interesting service the barge set out on 17th Au- 
gust, while Beechey returned towards Kotzebue's Sound. 
On the night of the 25th they beheld, for the first time in 
these northern latitudes, a brilliant display of the Aurora 
Borealis. " It first appeared," says Captain Beechey, " in 
an arch extending from west-by-north to north-east ; but 
the arch shortly after its first appearance broke up and en- 
tirely disappeared. Soon after this, however, a new display 
began in the direction of the western foot of the first arch, 

* Beechey's Voyage, vol. i. p. 34L 
S 



205 ESQUIMAUX CHARACTER AND CUSTOMS. 

preceded by a bright flame, from which emanated corusca- 
tions of a pale straw colour. An almost simultaneous move- 
ment occurred at both extremities of the arch, until a com- 
plete segment was formed of wavering perpendicular radii. 
A soon as the arch was complete, the light became greatly 
increased, and the prismatic colours, which had before been 
faint, now shone forth in a very brilliant manner. The 
strongest colours, which were also the outside ones, were 
pink and green, on the green side purple and pink, all of 
which were as imperceptibly blended as in the rainbow. 
The green was the colour nearest the zenith. This magni- 
ficent display lasted a few minutes ; and the light had nearly 
vanished, when the north-east quarter sent forth a vigorous 
display, and nearly at the same time a corresponding co- 
ruscation emanated from the opposite extremity. The west- 
ern foot of the arch then disengaged itself from the horizon, 
crooked to the northward, and the whole retired to the north- 
east quarter, where a bright spot blazed for a moment, and 
all was darkness. There was no noise audible during any 
part of our observations, nor were the compasses percepti- 
bly affected."* During the voyage back to Chamisso 
Island, where they arrived on the 27th August, they had 
repeated interviews with the Esquimaux, whose habits and 
disposition were in no respect different from those of the 
natives already described. They found them uniformly 
friendly, sociable, devotedly fond of tobacco, eager to en- 
gage in traffic, and upon the whole honest, though disposed 
to drive a hard bargain. On some occasions they attempted 
to impose upon their customers, by skins artfully put toge- 
ther so as to represent an entire fish ; but it was difficult to 
determine whether they intended a serious fraud or only a 
piece of humour, for they laughed heartily when detected, 
and appeared to consider it a good joke. Their persons, 
houses, and cookery were all exceedingly dirty, and their 
mode of salutation was by a mutual contact of noses ; some- 
times licking their hands and stroking first their own faces, 
and afterward those of the strangers, t The rapidity with 
which these people migrated from place to place was re- 
markable. On one occasion the motions of two baidars 
under sail were watched by the crew of the Blossom. Tha 

* Beechey's Voyage, vol. i. p. 387. f ^id- p. 345, 391. 



elson's expedition. 207 

people landed at a spot near Choris Peninsula, drew up the 
boats on the beach, turning them bottom upwards, pitched 
tents, and in an incredibly short time transferred to them the 
whole contents of their little vessels. On visiting the en- 
campment an hour after, every thing was found in as com- 
plete order as if they had been domiciliated on the spot for 
months ; and the surprise of the sailors was raised to the 
highest by the variety of articles which, in almost endless 
succession, they produced from their little boats. " From 
the two baidars they landed fourteen persons, eight tent- 
poles, forty deer-skins, two kayaks, many hundred-weight 
of fish, numerous skins of oil, earthen jars for cooking, two 
living foxes, ten large dogs, bundles of lances, harpoons, 
bows and arrows, a quantity of whalebone, skins full of 
clothing, some immense nets made of hide for taking small 
whales and porpoises, eight broad planks, masts, sails, pad- 
dles, &c., besides sea-horse hides and teeth, and a variety 
of nameless articles always to be found among the Esqui- 
maux."* 

In the mean time, Mr. Elson in the barge proceeded 
along the shore for seventy miles, as far as a promontory, 
denominated by Beechey Cape Barrow, which was after- 
ward discovered to be only distant 146 miles from the ex- 
treme point of Franklin's discoveries. Upon this new line 
of coast posts were erected at various distances, with direc- 
tions for Captain Franklin, should he succeed in pushing 
so far to the westward. A frequent communication was 
opened with the inhabitants, who were found to resemble 
the other Esquimaux, with the unpleasant difference that 
their manners were more rude and boisterous, and their 
conduct in some instances decidedly hostile. Point Barrow, 
the most northerly part of America yet discovered, formed 
the termination to a spit of land jutting out several miles 
from the more regular coast-line. The width of the neck 
did not exceed a mile and a half; on the extremity were 
several small lakes, and on its eastern side a village. The 
danger of being shut in by the ice was now great, and Mr. 
Elson determined to land, obtain the necessary observations, 
erect a post, and deposite instructions for Franklin. This 
plan, however, was frustrated by the violent conduct of the 

* BeecUey's Voyage/ vol. i p. 405. 



208 RETURN OF BEECHEY. 

natives, who assembled in formidable numbers, and threat- 
ened to attack the crew of the barge, which consisted only 
of eight men. It was therefore judged prudent to proceed 
as speedily as possible to the rendezvous at Chamisso Island, 
which they reached on the 9th of September, not without 
considerable difficulty, having been obliged to track the 
barge round Cape Smyth, through a sea thickly beset with 
ice, that threatened every moment to close with its impen- 
etrable walls, and cut off their return. The result of Cap- 
tain Beechey's voyage, and of the expedition undertaken 
under his orders by Mr. Elson and Mr. Smyth, was the 
addition of a new and extensive line of coast to the geogra- 
phy of the polar regions. The actual distance between the 
extreme points reached by Captain Franklin and Mr. Elson 
being so small, there is every reason to believe that the 
navigation of this remaining portion will not be attended 
with any very formidable or insurmountable obstacles. 

In the following year Beechey, in obedience to his instruc- 
tions, returned to Kotzebue's Sound, and recommenced his 
examination of the coast, in the hope of extending his sur- 
vey beyond Cape Barrow, and either joining Franklin or 
collecting some certain intelligence regarding his enterprise. 
In both objects he had the mortification to fail ; he found the 
posts erected the preceding year and the buried bottles re- 
maining untouched, and the state of the weather rendered 
it necessary to put about before reaching Icy Cape. It had 
been previously arranged, that the signal to be used by 
Franklin, if he arrived on an unknown coast during the 
night, should be a beacon kindled on the cliffs ; and, on 
passing Cape Krusenstem after dark, their attention was 
arrested by a large fire blazing on an eminence. Every eye 
on board was fixed on the welcome light, and every bosom 
beat with the delightful expectation of soon seeing their 
friends. The ship was brought-to, and hope almost passed 
into certainty, as a boat was seen pulling from the shore. 
On examining her through the telescope by the light of the 
Aurora Borealis, some sanguine spirits declared they could 
discern that she was propelled by oars instead of paddles, 
and it needed only a slight additional exertion of the fancy 
to be assured that the dress of the crew was European. In 
the midst of these excited and enthusiastic feelings, the 
harsh and boisterous voices of the natives suddenly broke on 



ARRIVAL IN ENGLAND. 209 

their ear, and the pleasing picture which their imagination 
had been so busy in constructing faded away in a moment, 
leaving nothing before them but two sorry Esquimaux 
baidars and their unlovely occupants. 

From this point Captain Beechey's voyage presented few 
features of new or striking interest. In Behring's Strait 
they were visited by a splendid exhibition of the Aurora 
Borealis, and under its coruscations of pink, purple, and 
green rays, which shot up to the zenith in the shape of a 
gigantic cone, they anchored off Chamisso Island. After 
the discovery of two capacious harbours, which they named 
Port Clarence and Grantley Harbour, they took their final 
departure from the Polar Sea, on the 6th October, 1827. 
On the 29th a flight of large white pelicans apprized them 
of their approach to the coast of California ; and after touch- 
ing at Monterey and San Bias, they arrived at Valparaiso 
on the 29th April, 1828. On the 30th June they passed the 
meridian of Cape Horn in a gloomy snow-storm, and made 
Rio on the 21st July. Their voyage from Rio to England 
was completed in forty-nine days, and they arrived at Spit- 
head on the 12th October, 1828. He found that the expe- 
dition of Franklin had preceded him in his return by more 
than a year, having reached Liverpool on the 26th Septem- 
ber, 1827 ; its transactions occupied two years and nearly 
eight months, while Beechey had been absent on his voyage 
three years and a half. 

sa 



THE 

NATURAL HISTORY 

OP THE 

NORTHERN REGIONS OF AMERICA. 



CHAPTER V. 

Introductory Observations. 

Amelioration in ttie Character of European Intercourse with uncivil- 
ized Nations— The Absence of Sandy Deserts a grand Feature in the 
Physical Attributes of America— General Boundaries of the Districts 
afterward treated of in Detail — Early Sources of Information regard- 
ing the Natural History of North America— General View of the Fur- 
countries— Passages across the Rocky Mountains— Plains and Valleys 
along the Pacific Shore. 

The preceding historical narrative will have rendered our 
readers familiar with the progress of navigation and dis- 
covery along the shores of North America ; while the 
sketches which have been presented of the journeys of 
Hearne and Mackenzie, as well as of the more recent ex- 
peditions of Franklin and Richardson, will have exhibited 
an accurate and interesting picture of whatever is most 
worthy of record in the history and habits of the more cen- 
tral tribes. The unextinguishable boldness and persevering 
bravery of the human race are strikingly manifested by these 
achievements in maritime and inland adventure ; and while 
we are too often shocked by the recital of deeds of violence 
and bloodshed, by unprovoked and unpardonable aggression 
on the part of the invaders, and by unsparing revenge, in 
retaliation, by the darker savage, we cannot but admire the 
energy and reckless daring exhibited on either side, though 
we may too often regret the want of a gentler and more 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 211 

humanizing spirit. In regard, however, to the later expe- 
ditions, especially those from the British shores, the philan- 
thropist and philosopher must have been alike delighted 
by the amelioration which has taken place in our mode of 
intercourse with the " painted men," who are no longer 
massacred as the beasts that perish, but, even when sought 
after originally from motives not entirely disinterested, are 
yet regarded as beings in whom the great Creator has im- 
planted the germ of an immortal life. But by what a cata- 
logue of crimes was the name of Christian first made known 
to many nations of the Western World ; and by what cruel 
tyranny and the sword of an exterminating war were not 
the insidious pretences of peace so often followed up by the 
civilized nations of Europe ! The cross was indeed but a 
vain and hollow symbol in the hands of those blood-stained 
and avaricious men, who sought to plant upon a false foun- 
dation that glorious banner to which God alone giveth the 
increase. The last entry in the following sumptuous enume- 
ration was probably omitted in the books of those proud 
traders : — " The merchandise of gold, and silver, and pre- 
cious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and 
silk, and scarlet, and all thyine wood, and all manner ves- 
sels of ivory, and all manner vessels of most precious wood, 
and of brass, and iron, and marble, and cinnamon, and 
odours, and ointments, and frankincense, and wine, and oil, 
and fine flour, and wheat, and beasts, and sheep, and horses, 
and chariots, and slaves, and — souls of men.^^* 

We have now to describe the characteristic features of 
the Natural History of the Northern Parts of America, a 
task rendered comparatively easy, in many important par- 
ticulars, by the labours of those intrepid men the recital of 
whose adventurous expeditions by land and sea has already 
engaged the attention of the reader. Indeed, we know of 
no better or more conclusive argument against those who 
venture to doubt the propriety of scientific exploration, on 
account of the uncertain fulfilment of some of our most 
sanguine expectations, than the great advancement which 
has recently been effected in our natural knowledge of far 
countries. It is true that the north-west passage has not 
yet been achieved, and it may be true that it never will be 

* Revelations, xviii. 12, 13 



212 NATURAL HISTORY. 

achieved, consistently with the strictly utilitarian views of 
merely commercial enterprise : but even although we should 
never have it in our power to substitute bad muskets for the 
arrows and harpoons of the skin-clad Esquimaux, and 
should be for ever doomed to a continuance of our present 
lengthened navigation to the eastern shores of Asia ; still 
it is something to say that we have almost completed our 
geographical knowledge of the circumference of the north- 
ern parallels of the earth ; and that, if the merchant cannot 
exchange his commodities by a more rapid route, a stock of 
intellectual food and a rich library both of useful and en- 
tertaining knowledge have been already provided, and will 
doubtless increase for the benefit of future generations. It 
is to the two expeditions under Sir John Franklin that we 
owe the better part of our information regarding the natural 
history of the interior districts of the fur-countries of North 
America ; and although the collecting of specimens did cer- 
tainly form but a secondary object in comparison with those 
great geographical problems, the solution of which was 
looked forward to as the principal and more important re- 
sult, yet it is gratifying to know that in the performance of 
higher duties of difficult and dangerous achievement, these 
resolute men neglected nothing which could in any way 
conduce to the completion of our knowledge of the countries 
they explored. 

Before entering into any zoological details, we shall de- 
vote a brief space to the consideration of one of the most 
peculiar and influential features in the physical character 
of the New World, viz. the absence of sandy deserts. It 
has been well observed that the physical conformation of 
North America precludes the possibility of those arid wastes 
They result from a want of moisture, and attach to such 
extended plains, in the more immediate vicinity of the 
tropics, as are too vast and disproportioned in relation to 
the quantity of rain which nature has assigned them ; for 
there — 

" No cloud of morning dew 
Doth travel through the waste air's pathless blue, 
To nourish those far deserts." 

They drmk and are for ever dry ; for the castellated glories 
of cloud-land float over them in vain ; and even when rent 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 213 

by thunderbolts, or illuminated by the blinding glare of the 
fed lightning, they never hear the refreshing music of the 
voice of " many waters." Geographical observation points 
out that whenever a continent or country is expanded for 
more than a few hundred miles beneath an equatorial sky, 
with a surface comparatively low and flat, it will become a 
desert. This is nothing more than the natural result of its 
inability to be supplied with moisture. A great proportion 
of Africa, the central regions of Asia, Arabia, and even 
those parts of Hindostan where mountains do not prevail, 
have become steril and deserted. Vast chasms are thus 
created, in which neither animal nor vegetable life can 
flourish. 

New-Holland probably owes its moisture to its insular 
situation ; and the peninsular form is no doubt highly ad- 
vantageous in that respect to the regions of Spain, Italy, 
Greece, and Asia Minor, while the mountain-ridges of Hin- 
dostan render it essential service. It is chiefly owing 
either to the vicinage of the sea, or of some alpine tract 
of territory, that those parts of Asia and Africa which the 
great deserts do not reach have become the fit abodes of 
the human race. Over a great extent of Central Africa, 
and some parts of Asia, along the coasts of the Red Sea 
and of the Indian Ocean, there does not seem to exist a 
sufficiency of mountain-ranges to collect from the atmo- 
sphere such stores of moisture as are necessary to fertilize 
those thirsty plains, and clothe their arid wastes with ver- 
dure. No commanding Cordilleras overlook those burning 
deserts, — no upland vales, nor cool and cloud-capped sum- 
mits, each with its huge recess, 

" That keeps till June December's snow," 

serve as the perennial fountains of refreshing water. 

Let us briefly consider a few of the leading physical 
characters of America, with a view to ascertain the cause 
of its exemption from desert regions.* Wilhin and in the 
vicinity of the tropic. North America is composed of what 

* See a short paper entitled " The United States are exempt from 
Deserts, and all the Evils consequent thereon," published in Mr. 
Featherstonhaugh's Monthly American Journal of Geology and Natural 
.Science. Philadelphia, August, 1831. 



214 NATURAL HISTORY. 

may, comparatively, be regarded as a narrow slip. It en- 
joys all the advantages of an insular position, and is re- 
freshed on either side bv the vapours of the translucent 
sea. Besides, the Cordilleras traverse the whole space, 
rising upon the Mexican table-land to an elevation of 
11,000 feet. All the winds of heaven, and especially the 
deeply-saturated trades, pour forth their never-ceasing 
vapours on this well-disposed region, and clothe its length- 
ened slopes and undulating plains with all the rich luxu- 
riance of a life-sustaining vegetation. " These friendly 
mountains, after upheaving the tropical parts of our con- 
tinent to the regions of eternal verdure, bear aloft their 
wide-spread arms (the Chipewyan and Alleghany ranges) 
as far as it is necessary to counteract the heats of a south- 
ern sun, and impart fertility to the great valley of the 
Mississippi, which seems especially confined to their fos- 
tering care. But when elevations become no longer essen- 
tial to the certainty of moisture and vegetation, they sink 
into the great plains of Canada, and disappear. How wise 
is this arrangement ! For, if these mountains had carried 
their characteristic elevation far north, they would have 
chilled with their eternal snows all the northern portion 
of our country, and rendered it barren, — not from drought 
and deserts, but, what is equally to be deprecated, the 
blights of intolerable cold. These friendl}' ranges of 
mountains are thus the everlasting guarantee of our coun- 
try's fertility. The Alleghany range derives its moisture 
from the Atlantic, and waters not only all the states that 
intervene between it and that ocean, but the states and dis- 
tricts that rest upon its western base, and contributes its 
full part to the great plains of Mississippi and Missouri. 
The Rocky or Chipewyan range draws heavily from the 
Pacific Ocean, and abundantly waters, not only that slope, 
but the extended plains which meet its eastern base. The 
narrow slopes of the two ranges of mountains which bor- 
der the two oceans are easily and very naturally irrigated 
from those oceans ; and their slopes, pointing inwards from 
the oceans and the plains immediately in contact with them, 
draw moisture from the numerous founts and reservoirs of 
the mountains themselves. The great valley of the Mis- 
sissippi, however, is too extensive, and too important to 
the rising generation of this country, to be left to any 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 216 

uncertain supply of moisture. The sources of the mountain^ 
with which it is enfiladed might prove to be inadequate, 
and certainly would, if all depended on them. Other 
guarantees are found, and powerful aids provided in the 
case. That great valley opens itself without barrier, on the 
southern end, to the trade-winds, which become deflected 
by the Mexican coast, enter it fraught with all the moisture 
of the gulf, and deposite on this region a supply literally 
inexhaustible, because those winds themselves are per- 
petual."* 

But even should the vast masses of vapour which gather 
over these majestic mountains, and are carried thither by 
the trade-winds, be insufficient to supply with moisture the 
almost boundless plains of the Western World, Providence 
has there collected the mightiest reservoirs of fresh water 
which exist on the surface of the known earth. The vast 
lakes of Canada, over which the winds are perpetually 
sweeping, and from which arise innumerable clouds of 
vapour, ensure a never-failing supply of water to the con 
tiguous portions of the plain. Thus, table-lands and rocky 
mountains, a circumambient ocean, and the most magnificent 
internal reservoirs, all co-operate to ensure, especially to 
the territory of the United States, a perpetual supply of 
moisture. The natural fertility of the soil is therefore 
great, and yields abundantly and with certainty to the 
wants of man. This humidity is moreover well-tempered, 
and is rarely poured forth in superabundance. In some 
northern European countries, and even in Great Britain 
and Ireland, our own familiar homes, the crops more fre* 
quently fail from excess than deficiency of moisture. In 
the former case, the grain is either blighted in the field, or 
it moulds and rots in the granary, or acquires a musty smell 
and flavour which render it unfit for the production of the 
finer breads. 

Wherever deserts prevail to a great extent, they not only 
prevent vegetation, and, consequently, preclude the possi« 
bility of a numerous population, but they also exercise a 
prejudicial influence over all the habitable neighbouring re- 
gions. They draw from them their moisture, and thus 
render their vegetation precarious. The heats that steam 

* Ibid. 



216 NATURAL HISTORY. 

from deserts enfeeble the vegetable life of the adjoining 
districts, and the sirocco-winds, collecting deleterious mat- 
ters from their fevered surface, carry languor, disease, and 
death in their course, and convert the verdant freshness of 
nature into an arid wilderness. When the seasons and 
the climate of a country are uncertain, when no human 
effort can control them, and no art or foresight render the 
results of labour available, the human creature himself par- 
takes of the wildness and irregularity of outward nature, 
and is either a victim of the wrathful elements, or a fierce 
and relentless devastator in his turn. Even the very form 
of man, in connexion with deserts, is deprived of much of 
its natural symmetry ; it is thin, dry, emaciated, and of a 
black or swarthy hue. He seems there formed, as it were, 
to drift with the sands, to move his limber and elastic frame 
with all the quickness that uncertainty may require ; but he 
possesses not the muscular powers requisite to continuous 
and effective labour. " In such countries population is 
sparse, and the few who draw a scanty support from the 
stinted and uncertain vegetation are unfixed in their habits, 
and wanderers. They realize nothing — improve not their 
condition — are actuated by the sudden impulses of want, or 
the emergency occasioned by the irregularities of the ele- 
ments around them. If industry exists not, and human 
labour be unavailable, none of those improvements which 
change the condition of our race, and give to us character 
and comfort, have any existence. Without surplus prodnc- 
tion there can be no commercial exchanges ; a limit is thus 
placed to social improvement, and a barrier erected against 
civilization. Man, under such a state of things, cannot 
multiply his race, because his supply of food is limited, — 
nor create wealth, because his labour is unproductive and 
without stimulus, — nor make valuable improvements in the 
arts, comforts, and intercourse of society, because he has 
neither the means nor the necessary numbers, — nor can he 
polish and refine himself, because his state of society is 
essentially wild and violent."* In America the natural 
condition and consequent tendency of all things is widely 
different, for the human race is there exempted from deserts 
and their concomitant evils. Hence a mighty power of fer- 

♦Featherstonhaugh's Monthly American Journal, vol. i. p. 80. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 217 

tility is slumbering even among the most unpeopled wastes j 
and nothing is wanting but the skill and perseverance of 
man to make the " desert blossom as the rose." 

''Pure element of waters ! wheresoe'er 

Thou dost forsake thy subterranean haunts, 

Green herbs, bright flowers, and berry-bearing plants 
Rise into life, and in thy train appear ; 
And, through the sunny portion of the year, 

Swift insects shine, thy hovering pursuivants. 

But if thy bounty fail, thi forest pants, 
And hart and hind, and hunter with hiS' spear, 

Languish and droop together." 

The portion of North America with the natural history 
of which we are now about to be engaged is exclusive of 
the southern parts of the Canadas, and of the whole of the 
United States. But it comprehends the entire of those vast 
territories which lie to the northward of the 48th parallel, 
from the northern shore of Lake Superior to Melville Island, 
in relation to latitude ; and from Newfoundland and the' 
eastern cape of Labrador to the peninsula of Alaska, the 
western termination of the Russian dominions in America, 
in regard to longitude.* These districts are very generally 
known under the name of the Amenc3.n frir-coim/rics ; and 
it is indeed to the employes of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany and other commercial travellers that we are largely 
indebted for information regarding the zoological productions' 
of several extensive tracts. For example: the earliest collec 
tions of the birds of Hudson's Bay were formed about ninety 

* In s])eaking of the boundaries of the almost boundless territories 6! 
the Russian dominion, we feel inclined to qualify the expression by the' 
words used in the spirited inscription engraved on the piece of plate pre- 
sented to Colonel Behm. That gentleman was commandant of the 
province of Kamtschatka in the time of Captain Cook, and had enter- 
tained the great navigator and his crews in a humane and generous 
spirit. The inscription, of which the composition is graceful, rims as 
follows : 

ViRo KGREGio magno i)e Beiim ; qul Imperatricis Augustissimae' 
Catherinae auspiciis, summ&que animi benignitate, saeva, quibus praeerat 
Kamtschaikae littora, navibus nautisque Britannicis hospita praebuit 
eosque in terminis, si qui essent Imperio Russico, frustra explorandis 
mala multa perpessos iterate vice excepit, refecit, recreavit, et com" 
meatti omni cumulate auctos dimisit ; Rei navalis BRiTANMc.f. sep 
TEMviRi in aliquam benevolentiae tarn insignis memoriam, araicissiiWS' 
gratissimoque animo, suo, patriacque nomine, D. D. D. 
r^ MDDCLXXXl. 



218 NATURAL HISTORY. 

years ago by Mr. Alexander Light, who was sent out by 
the company in consequence of his knowledge of natural 
history. It has been also recorded that Mr. Isham, for a 
long time a resident governor of various forts in the fur- 
countries, occupied his leisure in preparing the skins of 
beasts, birds, and fishes. These two gentlemen, we are in- 
formed by Dr. Richardson, returned to England about the 
year 1745, and, fortunately for the advancement of science, 
intrusted their specimens to Mr. George Edwards, the in- 
genious author of the " Natural History of Birds, and other 
rare undescribed Animals," — a publication which has been 
characterized as the most original and valuable work of the 
kind in the English language. In the course of the year 
1749, Ellis* and Drage,t the latter of whom was clerk to 
the California, published the respective narratives of their 
voyage, both of which tend to the illustration of natural 
history. 

Little information appears to have been received regard- 
ing these northern regions for about twenty years succeed- 
ing the last-mentioned period. Mr. William Wailes went 
to Hudson's Bay in 1768 for the purpose of making ob- 
servations on the transit of Venus, and was intrusted on 
his return by Mr. Graham, governor of the company's fort 
at Severn River, with a collection of quadrupeds, birds, and 
fishes, for presentation to the Royal Society. These speci- 
mens were described by John Reinhold Forster,J and ap- 
pear to have excited so much attention that the Royal 
Society requested that directions should be given by the 
governor and committee of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
with a view to the more frequent and extensive collection 
and transmission of objects of natural history. Accord- 
ingly several hundred specimens of animals and plants, col- 
lected at Fort Albany, were transmitted by Mr. Humphrey 
Martin. His successor, Mr. Hutchins, was still more in- 
dustrious ; for he not only prepared numerous specimens, 
but drew up minute descriptions of whatever quadrupeds 
and birds he could procure. It was in fact from his ob- 
servations (preserved in a folio volume in the Library of 



* Vo3'age to Hudson's Bay in the Dobbeand California 

t Voyage by Hudson's Straits. 

t Philosophical Transactions, 1772. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 219 

the Hudson's Bay Company*) that Pennant and Latham 
chiefly derived whatever was valuable in their worksf re- 
garding the feathered tribes of Hudson's Bay. Cook's third 
voyage threw some light, from circumstances not now very 
efficient, on the species of the north-west of America and 
Behring's Straits.J Pennant's "Arctic Zoology" was 
published in 1785, and contains the most ample descriptive 
catalogue of arctic American quadrupeds and birds which 
had appeared prior to Dr. Richardson's recent volumes. 

These may be regarded as among the more accurate 
sources of information up to the commencement of our own 
scientific expeditions by land and sea, — for although Um- 
fraviile and Hearne no doubt illustrate the habits of some 
of the more common species, and the well-known voyages 
of Vancouver, Portlock, Meares, and LangsdorfF to the 
north-west, — and the journeys of Lewis and Clarke to the 
banks of the Columbia, contribute to our stock of know- 
ledge, yet no very important results were thereby obtained. 
The naturalists attached to Kotzebue's expedition also ac- 
quired some information regarding the zoology of the 
north-west coasts ; and the Appendix to Captain Beechey's 
Voyage, now in preparation, will probably throw consider- 
able light on those forlorn regions of the world. <J 

* For this information we are indebted to Dr. Richardson. Fauna 
Boreali-Americana, vol. ii., Introduction, p. xi. 

t Arctic Zoology, and General Synopsis of Birds. 

t From the want of engraved representations, and the subsequent 
destruction or dispersion of the specimens collected, it is novir difficult 
to identify the species with precision. 

§ We should gladly have availed ourselves of the information con- 
tained in the Zoological Appendix to Captain Beechey's published voy- 
aj?e, which we understand has been for some time printed. It has not 
yet, however, made its appearance. Few specimens of quadrupeds 
were brought by that expedition from North America; and we are in- 
formed that the only new one was a squirrel from California. Dr. 
Richardson has supplied a list of all the mammalia known to inhabit 
the Pacific coast to the north of California. It includes 70 species, of 
which the following are not in the Fauna Boreali-Americana : viz. Cards 
ochropus, Eschschultz, Zoologisch. All. pi. 2; Feiis concolor ; F. onca ; 
six species of seal; Trichechus rosmarus ; Didelphis Virginiana; 
Arvicola rubricatus (Ricli.), described from Mr Collie's not^s— (this 
animal was obtained in Behring's Straits, but no specimen was brought 
home ; it is allied to Arvicola oeconomiis of Pallas) ; Arctomys caligata, 
Esch.sch.pl. 6, a species resembling Arctoimjs priiinosus oi VeanmM', 
and ScivTus CoUicei (Rich.), from San Bias, California. 

We are further informed that in this forthcoming Appendix, Mr. Vigors 
enumerates nearly 100 species of hirds; biu as the localities at which 



220 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The most exact and systematic information which we 
possess regarding the zoology of the extreme northern 
shores and insular groups of America is contained in the 
Appendices to the Yoynges of Captains Ross and Parry-, 
in Mr. Joseph Sabine's Appendix to the Narrative of Sir 
John Franklin's first Journey, and in Dr. Richardson's 
^' Fauna Boreali-Americana," — a work lately characterized 
as an " admirable volume, which, while it conveys more 
substantial information on the subject of arctic zoology 
than any publication that has appeared since the time of 
Pennant, is also highly valuable as correcting the occasional 
errors of that excellent work, and adding all the most use^ 
ful and interesting information which has been more re- 
cently acquired."* The best account which we yet possess 
of the zoology of Greenland is that of Otho Fabricius.f 
The ornithology of that country has likewise been ably 
illustrated by Captain Sabine. J 

We shall now proceed to give a concise general view of 
the nature of the different tracts of country of which we 
are afterward to describe the zoological productions. This 
we shall do in conformity with the views so lucidly presented 
by Dr. Richardson, i^ 

The Rocky Mountains form the most interesting and 
prominent feature in the physical geography of North 
America. Though much nearer the western than the 
eastern shore of that great continent, they appear to form, 
in relation to the distribution both of plants and animals', 
a strongly-marked line of demarcation, which presents a 
barrier to the progress or migration of many species. No 
doubt, the direction of this vast chain being from south to 
north, it lies in the line of, rather than at right angles to, 
the usual course of migration, and therefore opposes a less 
formidable barricade than if it were stretched across the 
continent. As it is, however, the natural productions 
which occur on the plains on different sides of this length- 

they were procured were not originally noted with precision, it will be 
Jhe more difficult to define the ranges of those which characterize the 
northern regions. 

Few northern fishes were obtained ; but IMr. Bennet has furnished aa 
account of such as were procured at Kamtschatka. 

* Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 346. t Fauna Grcenlandica. 

X Memoir on the Ihrds of Greenland. Linn. Trans, vol. xii. 

^ Fauna Boreali-Americaaa, vol. i., lutioduciiQn, p. .\ix. xj^iv. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 221 

ened range exhibit a considerable dissimilarity. Nature, 
under the regulation of the laws of Providence, has no 
doubt made many exceptions to this rule in favour of species 
which occur on both sides of the chain ; but the distribu- 
tion both of plants and animals, if not regulated, is at least 
modified by the intervention of these mountains. 

This continuous chain, of which the loftiest peak attains 
to an elevation of 15,000 feet, stretches from Mexico in a 
north-west direction, and, pursuing a course nearly paral- 
lel with the shores of the Pacific Ocean, terminates about 
tlie 70th degree of north latitude, to the westward of the 
mouth of the Mackenzie River, and within sight of the 
Arctic Sea. Though much inferior in height to the Andes 
of the southern continent, of which, however, in a general 
sense, they may be regarded as the northern continuation, 
they greatly exceed in elevation the other mountain-chains 
of North America. This, indeed, becomes apparent from 
a consideration of the courses of the great rivers of the 
country, all of which, with the exception of the lake-born 
St. Lawrence, derive their sources and primary streams 
from the Rocky Mountains, however different may be the 
direction in which their waters llow. The Columbia, for 
example, which falls into the Northern Pacific Ocean in the 
46th parallel, derives its primary streams from the western 
slopes of the same rocky chain, the eastern sides of which 
give rise to the waters of the Missouri, which, following a 
south-easterly and southern direction, terminate their long- 
continued course of 4500 miles in the Gulf of Mexico. 
The Saskatchawan, in both its great branches, likewise 
flows from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and, 
uniting its streams a short way below Carlton House, it 
flows through Lake Winipeg, and then, assuming the name 
of Nelson River, it empties itself, in the vicinity of Cape 
Tatnam, into Hudson's Bay. In like manner, the Mac- 
kenzie, which, in respect of size, may be regarded as the 
third river in North America (being inferior to the Missouri 
and St. Lawrence alone), derives its two main branches, 
the Elk and Peace Rivers, from these mountains ; and ere 
long, flowing northwards and in a north-westerly direction, 
it opens its 'numerous mouths into the Polar Sea, after a 
course of nearly 2000 miles. It may be mentioned as a 
singular fact, that the Peace River actually rises on the 
T2 



222 NATURAL HISTORY. 

western siJe of the Rocky Mountain ridge, within 300 yards 
of the source of the Tacootchesse, or Eraser's River, wiiich 
flows into the Strait of Georgia, on the western shore.* 

At a considerable distance below its issue from Great 
Slave liake, and where the Mackenzie makes its first near 
approach to the Rocky Mountains, it is joined by a large 
stream which runs a little to the northward of the Peace 
River, and flows along the eastern base of the mountains. 
It was called the River of the Mountains by Sir Alexander 
Mackenzie ; but it has since, on account of its great mag- 
nitude, become more generally recognised by the traders 
under the name of the South Branch of the Mackenzie. 
The Mackenzie also receives several other large streams in 
the course of its seaward journey, and among others Great 
Bear Lake River, whose head-waters draw their source 
from the banks of the Coppermine River, and Peel's River, 
which issues from the Rocky Mountains in latitude 67°. 
" Immediately after the junction of Peel's River," Dr. 
Richardson observes, " the Mackenzie separates into numer 
rous branches, which flow to the sea through a great delta 
composed of alluvial mud. Here, from the richness of the 
soil, and from the river bursting its icy chains compara- 
tively very early in the season, and irrigating the low delta 
with the warmer waters brought from countries ten or 
twelve degrees farther to the southward, trees flourish, and 
a more luxuriant vegetation exists than in any place in the 
same parallel on the North American continent."! In lati- 
tude 68°, there are many groves of handsome white spruce^- 
firs, and in latitude 69°, on the desolate shores of the Polai 
Sea, dense and well-grown willow-thickets cover the flat 
islands ; while currants and gooseberries grow on the drier 
hummocks, accompanied by showy epilobiums and peren- 
nial lupins. The moose-deer, the beaver, and the American 
hare follow this extension of a life-sustaining vegetation, 
and the existence of these herbivorous animals induces a 
corresponding increase in the localities of wolves, foxes, and 
other predaceous kinds. 

The above-mentioned are the principal rivers which 
traverse the fur-countries of America. There are, however, 
a few others of smaller size, the banks of which yielded 

* Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 352. 

t Fauna Boreali-Aniericani), vol. i., lutrodiiction, p. xxij. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 223 

Iheir share of the natural history collections, and may 
therefore be briefly noticed. Hayes River takes its origin 
from the neighbourhood of Lake Winipeg, and, after run- 
ning a course almost parallel to that of Nelson's River, it 
falls into the same quarter of Hudson's Bay. York Factory, 
so frequently mentioned in the narratives of our northern 
expeditions, stands on the low alluvial point that separates 
the mouths of these two rivers. The Missinnippi, or, as 
it is sometimes called, the English River, falls into Hud- 
son's Bay at Churchill. Its upper stream is denominated 
the Beaver River, and takes its rise from a small ridge of 
hills, intermediate between a bend of the Elk River and the 
northern branch of the Saskatchawan. Lastly, the Copper- 
mine River derives its origin not far from the east end of 
Great Slave Lake, and pursuing a northerly course, already 
made famihar to our readers, it flows through the Barren 
Grounds into the Arctic Sea. It is inferior in size to several 
branches of the Mackenzie ; and as there are few alluvial 
deposites along its banks, it is deficient in that compara- 
tive luxuriance of vegetation which, along the banks of the 
Mackenzie, induces several species of herbivorous quadru- 
peds to seek a higher latitude than they elsewhere attain. 
Did our limits permit we could dwell with pleasure on this 
example of the interconnexion or mutual dependence of the 
links of a lengthened chain of facts in natural history. 

There are various practicable passages across the Rocky 
Mountains. Sir Alexander Mackenzie crossed them in the 
year 1793, at the head of the Peace River, between lati- 
tudes 55° and 56°. The same route was followed in 1806 
by a party of the North-west Company, who went to form 
a settlement in New-Caledonia. It is still occasionally 
used by the servants of the Hudson's Bay Company. In 
the year 1805, Lewis and Clarke effected a passage at the 
head of the Missouri, in latitude 47°, on their way to the 
mouth of the Columbia. Dr. Richardson informs us, that 
for several years subsequent to that period, the North-west 
Company were in the habit of crossing in latitude 52^°, 
at the head of the north branch of the Saskatchawan, be- 
tween which and one of the feeding streams of the Columbia 
there is a short portage ; but of late years, owing to the 
hostility of the Indians, that route has been deserted, and 
the Hudson's Bay Company, who now engross the whole 



224 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of the fur trade of that country, make use of a more 
lengthened portage between the northern branch of the 
Columbia and the Red Deer River, one of the branches of 
the Elk or Mackenzie. We are likewise informed that at- 
tempts have been recently made to effect a passage in the 
62d parallel of latitude ; but although several ridges of the 
mountains were crossed, it does not appear that any stream 
flowing towards the Pacific was attained. 

The latest journeys across the Rocky Mountains with 
which we happen to be acquainted are those of Messrs. 
Drummond and Douglas, two skilful and enterprising bota- 
nists, both belonging professionally to that high class of 
practical horticulturists for which Scotland has been long 
famous, and of which she is so justly proud. 

Mr. Drummond acted in the capacity of assistant-natu- 
ralist to Sir John Franklin's second overland expedition, and 
it was to his unrivalled skill in collecting, and indefatigable 
zeal, that Dr. Richardson was indebted for a large propor- 
tion both of the botanical and zoological productions. He 
continued at Cumberland House in 1825, and occupied him- 
self collecting plants during the month of July, after the 
main body of the expedition had departed northwards. He 
then ascended the Saskatchawan for 660 miles, to Edmonton 
House, performing much of the journey on foot, and amass- 
ing objects of natural history by the way. He left Edmon- 
ton House on the 22d of September, and crossing a thickly- 
wooded swampy country to Red Deer River, a branch of 
the Elk or Athabasca, he travelled along its banks until he 
reached the Rocky Mountains, the ground being by this 
time covered with snow. Having explored the portage-road 
for fifty miles across the mountains towards the Columbia 
River, he hired an Indian hunter, with whom he returned 
to the head of the Elk River, on which he passed the winter 
making collections, under privations which Dr. Richardson 
observes, " would have effectually quenched the zeal of a 
less hardy naturalist." He revisited the Columbia portage- 
road during the month of April, 1826, and continued in that 
vicinity until the 10th of August, after which he made a 
journey to the head-waters of the Peace River, during 
which he suffered severely from famine. But, nothing 
daunted, our enduring countryman, as soon as he had ob- 
tained a supply of provisions, hastened back to the Columbia 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 225 

portage, with the view of crossing to that river, and bota- 
Tiizing for a season on its banks. However, when he had 
reached the west end of the portage, he was overtaken by 
letters from Sir John Franklin, informing him that it was 
necessary to be at York Factory in 1827. He was there- 
fore obliged to commence his return, greatly to his own 
regret ; for a transient view of the Columbia had stimulated 
his desire to investigate its natural treasures. " The snow," 
he observes, " covered the ground too deeply to permit me 
to add much to my collections in this hasty trip over the 
mountains ; but it was impossible to avoid noticing the 
great superiority of the climate on the western side of that 
lofty range. From the instant the descent towards the 
Pacific commences, there is a visible improvement in the 
growth of timber, and the variety of forest-trees greatly 
increases. The few mosses that I gleaned in the excursion 
were so fine that I could not but deeply regret that I was un- 
able to pass a season or two in that interesting region." He 
now reluctantly turned his back upon the inountains, and, 
returning by Edmonton House, where he spent some time, 
he joined Dr. Richardson at Carlton House, on his homeward 
journey. Mr. Drummond's collections on the mountains 
and plains of the Saskatchawan amounted to about 1500 
species of plants, 150 birds, 50 quadrupeds, and a consider- 
able number of insects. He remained at Carlton House 
for six weeks after Dr. Richardson had left that place, and, 
descending to Cumberland House, he there met Captain 
Back, whom he accompanied to York Factory. He had 
previously, however, had the pleasure of being joined by a 
countryman and kindred spirit, Mr. David Douglas, the 
other indefatigable collector to whom we have already 
alluded. Mr. Douglas had been engaged in gathering 
plants for three years for the Horticultural Society, in North 
California and on the banks of the Columbia River. He 
had crossed the Rocky Mountains from the westward, at 
the head of the Elk River, by the same portage-road pre- 
viously traversed by Mr. Drummond, and having spent a 
ehort time in visiting the Red River of Lake Winipeg, he 
returned to England along with Mr. Drummond by the way 
of Hudson's Bay.* " Thus, a zone of at least two degrees 

* These enterprising men have been for a consitlcrable period respec- 
tively engaged in a second journey of great extent, through various 



226 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of latitude in width, and reaching entirely across the conti 
nent, from the mouth of the Columbia to that of the Nelson 
River of Hudson's Bay, has been explored by two of the 
ablest and most zealous collectors that England has ever 
sent forth ; while a zone of similar width, extending at 
right angles with the other from Canada to the Polar Sea, 
has been more cursorily examined by the expeditions."* 

That widely-extended tract of territory which lies to the 
■eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and to the north of the 
Missouri and the Great Lakes, is now well known to the 
Hudson's Bay traders, with exception of the shores of the 
Polar Sea, and a corner, bounded to the westward by the 
Ooppermine River, Great Slave, Athabasca, Wollaston, and 
Deer Lakes, to the southward by the Churchill or Missin- 
nippi, and to the northward and eastward by the sea. 
When viewed under a zoological aspect, we find that this 
north-eastern corner, more particularly known under the 
name of the " Barren Grounds," carries its purely arctic 
character farther to the south than any of the other me- 
ridians. This very bare and desolate portion of America is 
almost entirely destitute of wood, except along the banks 
of its larger rivers. The rocks of this district are primi- 
tive, and rarely rise to such an elevation as to deserve the 
name of mountain-ridges, being rather an assemblage of 
low hills with rounded summits, and more or less precipitous 
sides. The soil of the narrow valleys which separate these 
hills is either an imperfect peat-earth, affording nourish- 
ment to dwarf birches, stunted willows, larches, and black 
spruce-trees, — or, more generally, it is composed of a rocky 
debris, consisting of dry, coarse, quartzose sand, unadapted 
to other vegetation than that of lichens. The centres of the 
larger valleys are filled with lakes of limpid water, which 
are stored with fish, even though frequently completely land- 
locked. More generally, however, one of these lakes dis- 
charges its waters into another, through a narrow gorge, l)y a 
turbulent and rapid stream ; and, indeed, most of the rivers 
which irrigate these barren grounds may almost be viewed 
as achain of narrow and connected lakes. The rein-deer or 

regions of North America. The different departments of natural history 
are expected to gain a rich harvest by their zealous and discriniiiiatinj} 
labours. 
» Fauna Boreali- Americana, vol. i., Introduction, p. xviii. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 227 

caribou, and the musk-ox, are the prevailing quadrupeds of 
these unproductive wastes, where the absence of fur-bearing 
species has prevented any settlement by the traders. The 
only human inhabitants are the caribou-eaters, — a people 
composed of a few forlorn families of the Chipewyans. 

From the district above described, a belt of low primitive 
rocks extends to the northern shores of Lake Superior. 
Dr. Richardson calculates it.i width at about 200 miles ; 
and he states that, as it becomes more southerly, it recedes 
from the Rocky Mountains, and difters from the Barren 
Grounds in being well wooded. It is bounded to the east- 
ward by a narrow strip of limestone, beyond which there is 
a flat, swampy, and partly alluvial district, forming the 
western shores of Hudson's Bay. This tract, from the 
western border of the low primitive tract just mentioned to 
the coast of Hudson's Bay, has been named the Eastern 
District, and presents us with several animals unknown to 
the higher latitudes. 

The Eastern District is bounded to the westward by a 
flat limestone deposite ; and a remarkable chain of lakes 
and rivers, such as the Lake of the Woods, Lake Winipeg, 
Beaver Lake, and the central portion of Churchill or Missin- 
nippi, all of which lie to the southward af the Methye Port- 
age, marks the line of junction of the two formations. 
This district, which Dr. Richardson has named the Lime- 
stone Tract, is well wooded, and produces the fur-bearing 
animals in great abundance. The white or polar bear, the 
arctic fox, the Hudson's Bay lemming, and several other 
species disappear, while their places are filled up by bisons, 
bats, and squirrels, unknown to the other regions. 

Intermediate between the limestone tract and the foot of 
the Rocky Mountains, there occurs a wide expanse of 
what is called in America prairie land. So slight are the 
inequalities of its surface, that the traveller,^ while crossing- 
it, is obliged to regulate his course either by the compass 
or the observation of the heavenly bodies. The soil is tole- 
rably fertile, though for the greater proportion dry and 
rather sandy. It supports, however, a thick grassy sward, 
which yields an abundant pasture to innumerable herds of 



228 NATURAL HISTORY. 

bison, and many species of deer ; and the grizzly bear, the 
fiercest and most powerful of all the North American land- 
animals, properly so called, inhabits various portions of 
this wide-spread plain. Prairies of a similar aspect, and 
still greater extent, are known to border the Arkansa and 
Missouri rivers. They are said to become gradually nar- 
rower to the northward, and in the southern portion of the 
fur^countries they extend for about fifteen degrees of longi- 
tude, from Maneetobaw, or Maneetowoopoo, and Winipe- 
goos Lakes, to the base of the Rocky Mountains. These 
magnificent plains are partially intersected by ridges of low 
hills, and also by several streams, of which the banks are 
wooded ; and towards the skirts of the plains many de- 
tached masses of finely-formed timber, and pieces of stiil 
water, are disposed in so pleasing and picturesque a man- 
ner, as to convey the idea rather of a cultivated English 
park than of an American wilderness. There is, however, 
so great a deficiency of wood in the central parts of these 
plains, that " the hunters," says Dr. Richardson, " are under 
the necessity of taking fuel with them on their journeys, or in 
dry weather of making their fires of the dung of the bison. 
To the northward of the Saskatchawan, the country is 
more broken, and intersected by woody hills ; and on the 
banks of the Peace River the plains are of comparatively 
small extent, and are detached from each other by woody 
tracts : they terminate altogether in the angle between the 
River of the Mountains and Great Slave Lake. The 
abundance of pasture renders these plains the favourite 
resort of various ruminating animals."* 

The preceding summary brings us to the base of that 
vast and continuous chain already so often mentioned under 
the name of the Rocky Mountains. It is inhabited by many 
singular animals, some of which do not occur among tlie 
lower groijinds on either side of the range. We have already 
stated our opinion regarding the character and physical 
influence of this extended group, and as we shall ere long 
describe the most remarkable of its zoological productions, 
we shall in the mean time request the reader to descend 
with us towards the western or Pacific shores. There we 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana> vol. i.> Introduction, p. xxix. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 229 

find several interesting tracts of country, with the natural 
history of which we are, however, more imperfectly ac- 
quainted than we should desire. 

The countries between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Pacific are in general of a more hilly nature than those 
already described to the eastward ; but the upper branches 
of I he Columbia are skirted by extensive plains, which 
present the same general character as those of the Missouri 
and Saskatchawan. New-Caledonia extends from north to 
south about 500 miles, and from east to west about 350 or 
400. Its central post at Stewart's Lake is placed in north 
latitude 54^, and west longitude 125 degrees. According to 
Mr. Harmon, it contains so many lakes that about one-sixth 
of its entire surface is under water. The weather here is 
much milder than on the eastern side of the mountains, — an 
amelioration which is no doubt owing to the comparatively 
narrow extent of land which intervenes between the moun- 
tains and the sea.* However, for a few days during the 
depth of winter it must be " pretty considerably" cold, as 
the thermometer is said to descend for a time to about thirty- 
two degrees below zero of Fahrenheit. Snow generally falls 
about the 15th of November, and disappears by the 15th of 
May ;t from which the winter may be fairly inferred to 
be of shorter duration by about one-third than it is in 
some places situated under the same latitude on the other 
side. 

The only remaining district of North America to which 
we need here allude, as falling within the scope of the 
present volume, is that forlorn region in the north-west cor- 
ner of the continent, which fornjs the terminating portion 
of the vast Russian dominions. Its shores have been coasted 
by Cook, Kotzebue, and Beechey ; but of its interior nature 
and productions we are more sparingly informed. Dr. 
Richardson, indeed, reports, from information given by the 
few Indians of Mackenzie's River who have ever crossed 
the range of the Rocky Mountains in that northern quarter, 
that on their western side there is a tract of barren ground 
frequented by rein-deer and musk-oxen ; and it may also be 

* Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 355. 

t Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North Anmertca, 
between the forty-seventh and fifty-eighth degrees of latitude, by Daiiie! 
WiUiani Harmon, a partner in the North-west Company . Andover, l^jtS. 



230 ^ATURAL HISTORY. 

mferred, from the quantity of furs procured by the Russian 
company, that woody regions, similar to such as exist to 
the eastward of the mountains, also occur in this north-west 
corner of America. 



CHAPTER VI. 



The Quadrupeds of the Northern Regions of America. 

Inaccuracies of some Historical Writers— No Monkeys in North America 
—Bats— Shrewmice— Genus Scalops, or Shrewmole— Otiier Moles of 
America — The Star-nose — Various Bears— ^DifTerent digitated Quadru- 
peds— Tlie Canada Otter— The Sea-otler— The Dogs and Wolves of 
America — Tlie Foxes— The Beaver— The Musk-rat — Meadow Mice and 
Lemmings— The Rocky Mountain Neotoma — The American Field- 
mouse— The Marmots— The Squirrel Tribe — The Canada Porcupine — 
The American Hare— The Polar Hare— The Prairie Hare— Tlie Little 
Chief Hare— Genus Cervus— The Elk, or Moose-deer— The Rein-deer 
—The Woodland Caribou— The Rocky Mountain Sheep— The Rocky 
Mountain Goat— The Bison, or American Buffalo— The Musk-ox. 

Having in the preceding chapter exhibited a general sketch 
of some of the prevailing features in the physical geography 
of the northern countries of America, we shall now proceed 
to a more detailed and systematic account of their natural 
history. But, in the first place, we may notice a slight in- 
accuracy which prevails in regard to the comparative size 
of the ferine inhabitants of the Old and New World. 
" Nature," says Dr. Robertson,* " was not only less prolific 
in the New World, but she ;ip[)ears likewise to have been 
less vigorous in her productions. The animals originally 
'aelonging to this quarter of the globe appear to be of an 
inferior race, neither so robust nor so fierce as those of the 
other continent. Amerita gives birth to no creature of such 
bulk as to be compared with the elephant or rhiiwceros, or 
that equals the lion and tiger in strength and ferocity. The 
tapir of Brazil, the largest quadru}>ed of the ravenous tribe 
!n the New World, is not larger than a calf of six months 
old. The puma and jaguar, the fiercest beasts of prey, 

* In his History of America, 



QUADRUPEDS. 231 

Avhich Europeans have inaccurately denominated lions and 
tigers, possess neither the undaunted courage of the former, 
nor the ravenous cruelty of the latter. '^ They are inactive 
and timid, hardly formidable to man, and often turn their 
backs upon the least appearance of resistance.! The same 
qualities in the climate of America which stinted the growth 
and enfeebled the spirit of its native animals have proved 
pernicious to such as have migrated into it voluntarily from 
the other continent, or have been transported thither by the 
Europeans.^ The bears, the wolves, the deer of America, 
are not equal in size to those of the Old World. "<J Now 
this idea that the quadrupeds of the New World are smaller 
than those of the Old is correct only in relation to the 
southern regions of each. The elephant and rhinoceros 
of India are of much more vast dimensions than the tapir 
and lama of South America ; but " the bears, wolves, and 
deer" of North America are much larger than those of 
Europe, and the reptiles of that same quarter of the globe 
are infinitely larger than any which occur in corresponding 
latitudes of the ancient continent. Even in regard to the 
feline tribes which the great Scotch historian considered as 
so inferior in the New World, perhaps there is less disparity 
than is usually supposed. Buffon's observations on the 
" cowardly tigers" of the new continent are known to be 
applicable to the small sppcics called the ocelot ; and it is 
ascertained that the real jaguar of the Orinoco sometimes 
leaps into the water and seizes the Indians in their canoes, 
— a practice not entirely consistent with the idea of its fear- 
ing the face of man. Let us peruse the following pas- 
sages from the writings of Humboldt : — " The night was 
gloomy ; the Devil's Wall and its denticulated rocks ap- 
peared from time to time at a distance, illumined by the 
burning of the savannas, or wrapped in ruddy smoke. At 
the spot where the bushes were the thickest, our horses 
were frightened by the yell of an animal that seemed to fol- 

* Buffon, Hist. Nat. torn. ix. p. 87. Margravii Hist. Nat. Brazil, 
p. 2'29. 

t Ibid. ix. 13, 203. Acosta. Hist. lib. iv. c. 34. Tisonis, Hist. p. 6. 
H<rrera, dec. 4, lib. iv. c. 1. lib. x. c. 13. 

I Clmniiill, V. p. 691. Ovalle, Relat. of Chili. Churchill, iii. p. JO, 
Sormimno de Oviedo, c. 14-22. Voyage du Des Marchais, iii. 299. 

$ Biiff)ti, Hist. Nat. ix. 103. Kalm's Travels, i. 102. Biet. Voy. d# 
France Equinox, p. 339. 



232 NATURAL HISTORY. 

low u« closely. It was a large jaguar that had roamed for 
three years among these mountains. He had constantly 
escaped the pursuit of the boldest hunters, and had carried 
off horses and mules from the midst of enclosures ; but, 
having no want of food, had not yet attacked men. The 
negro who conducted us uttered wild cries. He thought 
he should frighten the jaguar; but these means were of 
course without effect. The jaguar, like the wolf of Europe, 
follows travellers even when he will not attack them ; the 
wolf in the open fields and unsheltered places, the jaguar 
skirting the road, and appearing only at intervals between the 
bushes."* The same illustrious observer also remarks, — 
" Near the Joval, nature assumes an awful and savage as- 
pect. We there saw the largest jaguar we had ever met 
with. The natives themselves were astonished at its pro- 
digious length, which surpassed that of all the tigers of 
India I had seen in the collections of Europe."! 

The first fact to which we shall here allude is one of a 
negative character, viz. the entire absence of the monkey 
tribe, commonly called the Quadrumanous order, from the 
countries of our present disquisition. The climate is too 
rigorous and variable for that " pigmy people." 

Of the next order, the Cheiroptera or bats, there are 
several North American species, of which we shall here 
name only the Vespertiiio subulatus of Say, a small-bodied 
species, common near the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, on the upper branches of the Peace River and 
Saskatchawan. 

The slender and delicately-formed tribe of shrewmice are 
well known in America. Forster's shrew {Sorex Forsteri, 
Rich.) is widely spread over the whole of the fur-countries 
as far as the sixty-seventh degree of north latitude ; and 
wherever the snow is sufficiently firm to retain the impres- 
sion, its little footmarks are seen throughout the dreary winter. 
Dr. Richardson often traced its paths to the top of a stalk of 
grass, by which it appeared to descend from the surface of 
the deep snow ; but he always sought in vain for its habita- 
tion beneath. This is th»- smallest quadruped with which 
the Indians are acquainted, and they carefully preserve its 

♦ Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 176. t Ibid, p, 437. 



QUADRUPEDS. 233 

»kin in their conjuring bags. It has been a source of won- 
der and admiration how the vital power should preserve its 
delicate hmbs from freezing in a country where the winter 
temperature sinks to fifty degrees below zero. Of this 
species the tail is of a square form, and of the same length 
with the head and body, which together measure rather 
more than a couple of inches. The ears are short and 
furry, the back is of a clove-brown colour, and the under 
parts are pale yellowish brown. 

A singular animal (classed under the genus Scalops of 
Cuvier) is known to the American naturalists by the name 
of shrewmole. It has a thick cylindrical body, resembling 
that of the common mole, without any distinct neck. Its 
limbs are very short, and appear remarkably so in conse- 
quence of their being enveloped in the skin of the body as 
far as the wrists and ankle-joints. The snout is linear and 
moveable, and projects above the third of an inch beyond 
the incisive teeth. The eyes are concealed by the fur, and 
are so exceedingly small, according to Dr. Godman, that the 
aperture of the skin is just large enough to admit the entrance 
of an ordinary-sized human hair. The paws closely resemble 
those of the European mole, and the fur has the same rich 
velvety appearance. It is of a brownish-black colour, with 
a slight chestnut tinge upon the forehead, and somewhat 
paler on the throat. 

Considerable confusion exists in the history of the Ame- 
rican moles, and it is still a matter of doubt whether any 
true mole (of the genus Talpa) inhabits the New World. 
" Before the sun rose," says Sir Alexander Mackenzie, 
"our guides summoned us to proceed, when we descended 
into a beautiful valley, watered by a small river. At eight 
we came to the termination of it, when we saw a great 
number of moles,"* Now, in this country, though mole- 
hills are abvmdant, it seldom happens that we see of the 
creatures themselves more than one at a time, and even 
that but rarely. From this it may perhaps be inferred that 
the species are distinct. However, the one which we have 
described above is frequent on the banks of the Columbia 
and the neighbouring coasts of the Pacific, According to 
Lewis and Clarke, " it differs in no respect from the species 

* Voyages from Montreal, on the river St. Lawrence, through the 
Caniinent of North America, to the Frozen mi Pacific Oceans, p. 314. , 
U2 



234 NATURAL HISTORY. 

60 common in the United States."* The northern range 
of the shrewmole is still unknown. It is supposed not 
to advance beyond the fiftieth degree of latitude, because 
its favourite food consists of earth-worms, which are un- 
known in the countries of Hudson's Bay, although it may 
probably reach a somewhat higher latitude along the milder 
Pacific shores. Its general habits resemble those of our 
own kind. It is a subterranean dweller, excavates gal- 
leries, throws up mounds, and feeds on insects. This spe- 
cies is said to have the singular custom of coming to the 
surface exactly at 7won. A domesticated individual kept 
by Mr. Titian Peale was lively, playful, and familiar ; it 
would follow the hand of its feeder by the scent, and then, 
after burrowing for a short distance in the loose earth, and 
making a small circuit, would return again for a supply of 
food. It fed on fresh meat, either cooked or raw, and was 
observed to drink freely. t 

Another sing\ilar subterranean species is the long-tailed 
mole of Pennant (Condylura longicavdata, Harhin). The 
length of this animal, exclusive of the tail, is nearly five 
inches. It is covered with a brownish-black velvety coat 
of fur, and the extremity of its snout is furnished with a 
cartilaginous fringe of eighteen rays, with two short bifid 
ones beneath the nostrils. It is from these appendages 
that it has obtained the name of star-nose. Specimens 
were transmitted to the Zoological Society from Moose 
Factory, Hudson's Bay. It is called 7iaspass-kasic by the 
Salteur Indians. 

We come now to the group of bears (genus Ursus), 
which includes the largest and most powerful of the Ame- 
rican beasts of prey. It is natural to suppose that animals 
of almost gigantic size, of great strength, and ferocious 
habits would be too formidable and dangerous to the hu- 
man race to remain unknown in any of their distinguish- 
ing characteristics. Yet the specific differences of the 
black and brown bears of Europe and America are still 
insufficiently illustrated. Both continents produce a black 
bear and a brown one, — the white or polar bear is com- 



* Travels to the Source of the Missouri River, vol. iii. p. 42. 

t American Natural History, by JoLn P. Godman, M.D., vol. i. p. 84. 



QUADRUPEDS. 235 

mon to the northern latitudes of each, while America alone 
is inhabited by the grizzly bear, Ursus ferox. 

The black bear of the New World (Ursus Americanus) 
has a more arched forehead than the analogous species 
of Europe. Its nose is continued on the same line with 
the forehead, and is also somewhat arched, which produces 
one of its most striking physiognomical characters. Its 
ears are high, oval, rounded at the tips, and ar^ placed wide 
apart from each other. Its fur is long, straight, black, and 
shining, with the exception of a large pale yellowish-brown 
spot on each side of the muzzle. The bare extremity of 
the nose is more obliquely truncated than that of the browo 
bear, and the palms and soles of the feet are comparatively 
shorter than in that species. This is the least of thfl 
American bears, and seldom exceeds five feet in length. 
Its disposition is also milder, and its diet consists of a 
greater proportion of vegetable substances. It feeds on 
various kinds of roots and wild berries, as well as on insects, 
eggs, birds, quadrupeds, and fish. In short, it may be 
said to be omnivorous, like the rest of its congeners, with 
this difference, that when it happens to be amply supplied 
with a favourite vegetable food, it will pass the carcass of a 
deer or other quadruped untouched. It may be character- 
ized as rather a timid animal, and seldom ventures to face 
a human foe, unless when hemmed into a corner, or im- 
boldened by the strength of parental affection. Its speed 
is generally said not to be very great ; but Dr. Richardson 
states that he has seen a black bear make off with a rapidity 
that would have baffled the fleetest runner, and ascend a 
nearly perpendicular cliff with a facility " that a cat might 
envy." 

This species, when resident in the fur-countries, sleeps 
throughout the winter, generally under a fallen tree, after 
having scraped away a portion of the soil. The first 
heavy fall of snow covers it up, and secures it from an 
undue intensity of cold. In regard to distribution, it is 
widely spread over all the wooded districts of America, from 
Carolina to the Arctic Sea, and across the whole of the con- 
tinent from east to west. It is, however, less abundant near 
the seacoasts than in the interior countries. *' The skin of 
a black bear, with the fur in prime order, and the claws 
Appended, was at one period worth from twenty to forty 



236 NATURAL HISTORY. 

guineas, and even more ; but at present the demand for 
them is so small, from their being httle used either for muffs 
or hammercloths, that the best, I believe, sell for less than 
forty shillings."* 

As both the black and grizzly bears vary greatly in the 
<*olour of their coats, according to age and season, the sup- 
posed brown bear of America is alleged by some to have 
-arisen from one or other of these variations. From inquiries 
made by Dr. Richardson throughout an extent of ten de- 
grees of latitude, from Lake Superior to Great Slave Lake, 
he could not ascertain that the natives of these districts were 
acquainted with more than two species of land bear, viz. the 
one above described, and the grizzly species. He found, 
however, that the barren lands which lie to the north and 
f'ast of Great Slave Lake, and stretch thence to the Polar 
Sea, are frequented by a bear which differs from those 
species, and presents a nearer affinity to the brown bear of the 
Scandinavian peninsula. Its general colour is dusky (some- 
times yellowish) brown, and the shoulders and flanks are 
frequently covered during the summer season with long 
pale-tipped hairs. This is no doubt the grizzly bear of 
Hearne, though quite distinct from the kind now more 
familiarly known under that appellation. The Iiidians 
greatly dread the Barren Ground bear, and avoid burning 
bones, lest the smell should attract so unwelcome a visiter. 
It is narrated, that as Keskarrah, an old Indian, was one 
day seated at the door of his tent near Fort Enterprise, a 
large bear suddenly made its appearance on the opposite 
bank of a small stream, and remained stationary for some 
time, curiously eying the old gentleman, and apparently 
deliberating whether to eat him up at that moment or wait 
till supper-time. Keskarrah, thinking himself in great 
jeopardy, and having no one to assist him but a wife as old 
as himself, immediately gave utterance to the following 
oration : — " Oh, bear ! I never did you any harm ; I have 
always had the highest respect for you and your relations, 
and never killed any of them except through necessity : go 
away, good bear, and let me alone, and I promise not to mo- 
lest you." Bruhi instantly took his departure ; and the 
-orator, never doubting that he owed his safety to his elo» 

* Fauna Boreali-Ainericana, vol. i. p. 20. 



QUADRUPEDS. 239 

quence, on his arrival at the fort frequently favoured the 
company with his speech at full length. In the stomach of 
one of these animals which Dr. Richardson dissected, he 
found the remains of a seal, a marmot, a large quantity of 
the long sweet roots of some Astragali and Hcdysara, with 
some wild berries and a little grass. 

The third American species of this genus which we re- 
quire to notice is the true grizzly hear, or Ursus ferox. He 
does not present a very amiable aspect. 

This is the most formidable animal of the North Ameri- 
can continent. When full grown it equals the size of the 
larger polar bears, and is not only more active, but of a 
fiercer and more vindictive disposition. Its strength is so 
great that it will drag the carcass of a buffalo weighing a 
thousand pounds. The following story of its prowess is 
well authenticated : — A party of voyagers had been occupied 
all day in tracking a canoe up the Saskatchawan, and hud 
seated themselves around a fire during the evening twilight. 
They were engaged in the agreeable task of preparing their 
supper, when a huge grizzly bear sprang over the canocy 
which they had tilted behind them, and seizing one of the 
party by the shoulder, carried him off. The remainder fled 
in terror, with the sole exception ofarnetif, named Bourasso, 
who, grasping his gun, followed the bear as it was deliber- 
ately retreating with the man in its mouth. He called out 
to his unfortunate comrade that he was afraid of hitting 
him if he fired at the bear ; but the latter entreated him to 
fire instantly, because the animal was squeezing him to 
death. On this he took a steady aim, and lodged his ball in 
the body of the brute, which immediately dropped its original 
prey, that it might revenge itself upon Bourasso. He how- 
ever escaped, though with difficulty, and the monster soon 
after retreated into a thicket, where it was supposed to have 
died. But fear prevailed over every other feeling, and no 
one thought it necessary too curiously to inquire. The 
rescued man was found to have had his arm fractured, and 
to have been otherwise severely bitten ; however, he after- 
ward recovered. We are informed by Dr. Richardson, 
that a man is now living in the vicinity of Edmonton House 
who was attacked by a grizzly bear, which suddenly sprang 
out of a thicket and scalped him by a single scratch of its 
tremendous claws, laying bare the scull, and pulling dowfa 



240 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the skin of the forehead quite over the eyes. Assistance 
being at hand, the bear was driven off without effecting 
further injury ; but the individual attacked was left in a 
most unfortunate and painful predicament, for the scalp not 
being properly replaced in time, he lost his sight (although 
his eyes remained uninjured), owing to the fixing and harden- 
ing of that skinny veil. 

Mr. Drummond, whose botanical trip to the Rocky Moun- 
tains we have already narrated, frequently met with these 
disagreeable companions. When he happened unintention- 
ally to come suddenly upon them, they would rear them- 
selves upright on their hind-legs, and utter a loud, harsh, 
and rapid breathing. From what is known of the habits of 
these animals, it is certain that, had he lost his presence of 
mind and attempted to flee, he would have been pursued, 
overtaken, and torn to pieces. But the bold Forfar-man 
stood his ground to an inch, and beating a huge botanical 
box, made of tin, his discordant music so astounded the 
grizzly monsters, that, after eying the Scottish Orpheus 
for a few minutes, they generally wheeled to the right about 
and galloped away. He was, however, once attacked by a 
female vvho was attended by her cubs. On this occasion 
his gun unfortunately missed fire ; but he kept her at bay 
with the butt-end till some gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay 
Company, with whom he was at that time travelling, came 
up to his assistance, and they succeeded in driving her off. 
On another occasion he observed a male caressing a female, 
and soon after the loving couple came towards him, but 
whether by accident or design he was uncertain. However, 
he thought there was no great harm in climbing a tree, and 
as the female drew near, he very ungallantly fired at and 
mortally wounded her. As usual in such cases, she uttered 
some loud screams, which threw the male into a most furious 
rage, and he reared himself up against the trunk of the tree 
on which Mr. Drummond was perched, no doubt wishing 
himself, if not, like the Scotch baronet's bird, in two places 
at one time, at any rate in some other quarter of the world 
than that which he then occupied. However, it is fortu- 
nately so ordained that grizzly bears either won't or can't 
climb, and the female in the mean while having retired tu 
a short distance, lay down, and the male proceeding to 
condole with her, Mr. Drummond shot him too. All 



QUADRUPEDS. 241 

things considered, this was probably his most prudent 
course. 

The geographical distribution of this species is extensive. 
According to Lieutenant Pike, it extends southward as 
far as Mexico,* and it is known to inhabit the Rocky 
Mountains and their eastern plains, at least as far as the 
sixty-tirst degree of north latitude, and in the last-named 
districts it occurs most frequently in such woody regions as 
are interspersed with open prairies and grassy hills.f 

Although unwiUing to detain our readers much longer in 
such uncouth company, we cannot close our account of 
American bears without a short record of the white or 
polar species, — the Uisus maritimus of naturalists. This 
great prowler of the arctic snows attains to a higher lati- 
tude than any other known quadruped, and dwells indeed 
by preference 

" In thrilling regions of thick-ribbed ice." 

Its southern limit appears to be somewhere about the fifty- 
fifth parallel. It is well known at York Factory, on the 
southern shore of Hudson's Bay, more especially during tlm 
autumn season, to which it is liable to be drifted during 
summer from the northward on the ice. It is a truly ice- 
haunting and maritime species, and occurs along a vast ex- 
tent of shore over the arctic regions, never entering into 
wooded countries except by accident during the prevalence 
of great mists, nor showing itself at more than a hundred 
miles' distance from the sea. Indeed it rarely travels in- 
land more than a few miles, because it is a strong and per- 
severing swimmer, and probably feels conscious that when 
removed from its accustomed element it loses the advantage 
of its own peculiar and most powerful locomotive energies. 
The polar bear is well known in Greenland, Spitzbergen, 

* Travels on the Missouri and Arkansaw, edited by Mr, Rees. 
London, 1811. 

t The specimen in the Edinburgh Museum (of which I have published 
a coloured representation on the twenty-first plate of the first volume of 
my *' Illustrations of Zoology") was killed on the plains at Carlton House 
in its second year. Its claws are black. In a mature condition these 
weapons are white, and necklaces made of them are much prized by the 
Indian warriors as proofs of prowess. 



242 NATURAL HISTORY. 

and Nova Zeinbla, and was met with by Captain Parry 
among the North Georgian Islands. It seems, however, to 
decrease in numbers to the westward of Melville Island. 
In proof of this it may be mentioned that Dr. Richardson 
met with none between the mouths of the Mackenzie and 
Coppermine Rivers ; and the Esquimaux informed Captain 
Franklin that white bears very rarely visited the coast to the 
westward of the Mackenzie. Along the Asiatic shores, on 
the other hand, they are not recorded as occurring to the 
eastward of the Tgchukotzkoi Noss.* Neither were they 
seen by Captain Beechey during his recent voyage to the 
Icy Cape, although their skins appear to have. been procured 
among other peltry from the natives on the coast of Hotham's 
Inlet, Kotzebue's Sound. f It thus appears that this great 
maritime species occurs very generally along all the frozen 
shores within the arctic circle, with the exception of about 
thirty-five degrees of longitude on either side of Point 
Beechey, in which it is comparatively rare ; and that in 
Hudson's Bay, and along the northern coast of Labrador, 
and the nearer portions of East and West Greenland, it 
occurs not unfrequently six or eight degrees to the south of 
the arctic circle.t 

We deem it unnecessary to describe the external charac- 
ters or appearance of this familiarly-known animal.^ 

Passing over the racoon {Frocyon lotor), the American 
badger {Meles Labradoria), the wolverene {Gulo luscus), the 
common weasel (Musiela xndgaris), the ermine or stoat 
{M. erminea), the vison-weasel {M. vison), the pine martin 
(M. martes), the pekan or fisher {M. Ca7iadensis), and the 
Hudson's Bay skunk {Miphitis Americana), we shall devote 
a page to the history of the American otters. 

* Arctic Zoology, vol. i. p. 62. 

t Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Behring's Straits, to co- 
operate with the Polar Expeditions. London, 183L 

X Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 344. 

§ One of the finest specimens in Europe is preserved in the Edinburgh 
College Museum. It was shot during one of Sir Edward Parry's expe- 
ditions, and was transmitted to Professor Jameson by order of the Lords 
of the Admiralty. For anecdotes illustrating the history and habits of 
the polar bear, we beg to refer the reader to No. XIV. of the Family 
Library, entitled " Discovery and Adventure in the Polar Seas and 
Regions." 



QUADRUPEDS. 243 

The Canada otter (liw/ra Cajiadensis of i^ah'me)* frequents 
the neighbourhood of falls and rapids during the winter 
season ; and when its accustomed haunts are frozen up, it 
will travel a great way over the snow in search of open 
water. In its food and habits it bears a close resemblance to 
the European species, but it may be distinguished by the 
fur on the belly being of the same shining brown colour as 
that on the back. It is also a much larger animal, and has 
a proportionately shorter tail. 

The sea-otter (Lutra marina) belongs to the subgenus 
Enhi/dra of Dr. Fleming.! It exhibits the manners rather 
of a seal than of a land animal. It resides chiefly in the 
water ; and, according to Pennant, has been sometimes met 
with more than a hundred leagues from shore. It is dis- 
tinguished from the fresh-water species, among other char- 
acters, by the larger size and greater strength of its fore- 
paws. The fur varies in beauty according to the age and 
condition of the animal. Those in highest estimation have 
the belly and throat interspersed with brilliant silver hairs, 
while the other parts consist of a thick black coat, with a 
silky gloss of extreme fineness. 

We have now to notice the wolves and dogs of America. 
The former may be called wild-dogs, and some of the latter 
are little better than semi-domesticated wolves. We shall 
not here enter into the question of the specific identity or dis- 
tinction of the European and American species. The large 
brown wolf, described by Lewis and Clarke as inhabiting not 
only the Atlantic countries but the borders of the Pacific and 
the mountains in the vicinity of the Columbia River, ap- 
pears to form the closest approximation to the wolf of the 
Scandinavian Alps and the Pyrenees. It is not found on the 
Missouri to the westward of the Platte. Wolves were ex- 
tremely numerous in some of the countries traversed by our 
overland expeditions. They varied greatly in colour ; some 
being pure white, others totally black, but the greater pro- 
portion were characterized by a mixture of gray, white, and 
brown. Dr. Richardson is of opinion that, however co- 
loured, they possess certain characters in common in which 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 6fi3. 
t Philosojiliy of Zoolojty, vol. ii. p. 187. 



244 Natural history. 

Ihey differ from the European raoe. " On the Barren 
Grounds, through which the Coppermine River flows, I had 
more than once an opportunity of seeing a single wolf in 
close pursuit of a rein-deer ; and I witnessed a chase on 
Point Lake wlien covered with ice, which terminated in a 
fine buck rein-deer being overtaken by a large white wolf, 
and disabled by a bite in the flank. An Indian, who was 
concealed on the borders of the lake, ran in and cut the 
deer's throat with his knife, the wolf at once relinquishing 
his prey and sneaking off. In the chase the poor deer 
urged its flight by great bounds, which for a time exceeded 
the speed of the wolf ; but it stopped so frequently to gaze 
on its relentless enemy, that the latter, toiUng on at a ' long 
gallop,' with its tongue lolling out of its mouth, gradually 
came up. After each hasty look, the poor deer redoubled its 
efforts to escape ; but, either exhausted by fatigue, or ener 
vated by fear, it became, just before it was overtaken, 
scarcely able to keep its feet."* A wolf seldom fails to at- 
tack, and can easily run down a fox, if it perceives it at any 
considerable distance from its cover, and it bears it off in 
its mouth without any apparent diminution of its speed, if 
it be at that time perceived and pursued by the hunters. 
Though cruel and bloodthirsty, and even at times bold in 
search of food when severely pressed by famine, the wolf 
is on the whole a timid and fearful animal. A handker- 
chief tied to a tree, or a distended bladder dangling in the 
air, is sufficient to keep a whole herd at a respectful distance. 
However, during Dr. Richardson's residence at Cumberland 
House, in 1820, a wolf which had been for some time 
prowling about the fort, and was supposed to have been 
driven off by a wound of a musket ball, returned after 
nightfall and carried off a dog from among about fifty of his 
companions, all of whom howled most lamentably, but 
wanted courage to rescue their unfortunate comrade. In the 
northern countries of America many wolves suffer dread- 
fully from famine, and not unfrequently perish of hunger 
during severe seasons. 

The individual here figured, from the fine specimen in the 
Edinburgh Museum, was found lying dead on the snow 
near Fort Franklin. It had been observed prowling about 

* Fauua Boreali- Americana, vol. i. p. f>2. 



QUADRUPEPS. 247 

tha Indian huts in the vicinity of the fort a few Jays pre- 
ceding ; and its extreme emaciation and the emptiness of 
its interior showed clearly that it had died from hunger. 
Captain Lyon describes the wolves of Melville Peninsula 
as comparatively fearless. One afternoon a fine dog strayed 
a short way ahead of its master, when five wolves made a 
sudden and unexpected rush, and devoured it in so incredibly 
short a time, that before Mr. Elder, who witnessed the 
attack, could reach the scene of action, the dog had disap- 
peared, with the exception of the lower part of a leg. They 
frequently came alongside the frost-bound ship, and one 
night broke into a snow-hut, and carried away a brace of 
Esquimaux dogs, which appeared to have made a consider- 
able resistance, as the ceiling was sprinkled with blood and 
hair. The alarm was not given till the mortal strife had 
terminated, and when they were fired at, one of the wolves 
was observed to take up a dead dog in his mouth, and to 
set oft' with it at an easy canter, although its weight was 
supposed to be equal to his own.* 

The dusky wolf, described in Godman's Natural History, 
is regarded as a distinct species by Mr. Say ;t and the black 
variety is also considered by some authors as entitled to 
specific separation. The not unfrequent occurrence of 
black individuals in the litter of the gray and brown wolves 
seems, however, rather to point out the probability of this 
diflference of colour being merely an accidental variation. 

But the prairie wolf (Canis lalrans) is undoubtedly a dis- 
tinct and well-defined species. It hunts in packs, and is an 
animal of great swiftness. It occurs on both sides of the 
Rocky Mountains ; but is less numerous on the banks of the 
Columbia than in the plains of the Missouri and Saskatcha- 
wan. When the hunters on the banks of the latter river 
discharge their muskets at any kind of game, great numbers 
of the prairie wolf are sometimes seen to start from holes in 
the earth, and keep a look-out with a view to secure the 
offals of the slaughtered animal. With the exception of 
the prong-horned antelope, there is probably no swifter 
quadruped in America than the prairie wolf. 

These fierce and unreclaimed animals conduct us natu- 
rally to the domesticated tribes of the canine race, of which 

* Lyon's Private Journal. 

t Long's Expedition to tbe Rocky Mounlains. 



248 NATURAL HISTORY. 

there are several remarkable varieties in the northern re- 
gions of America. We can here aflbrd space only for a few 
lines regarding the Hare Indian or Mackenzie River dog 
(Canis familiaris, var. lagopos). The front figure of the 
annexed cut represents his external aspect. 

This domestic variety, as far as Dr. Richardson could 
learn, appeared to be cultivated only by the Hare Indians, 
and other tribes frequenting the borders of the Great Slave 
Lake, and the banks of the Mackenzie. It is too small and 
slight to serve as a beast of draught or other burden, and is 
consequently used solely in the chase. It is an animal of a 
playful and aflectionate disposition, easily conciliated by 
kindness. It has a mild countenance, a demufe expression, 
a small head, slender muzzle, erect ears, and eyes somewhat 
oblique. Its legs are rather slender, the feet broad and 
hairy, the tail bushy, and for the most part curled over the 
right hip. It may be characterized as bearing the same 
near relation to the prairie wolf as the Esquimaux dog does 
to the great gray wolf of America. Indeed the whole of the 
canine republic in these parts of America are of very wolfish 
habits. For example, the larger dogs which our expedition 
purchased at Fort Franklin for the purposes of draught 
were in the habit of pursuing the Hare Indian dogs in order 
to devour them ; but the latter, fortunately, far outstripped 
the others in speed. A young puppy, vs'hich Dr. Richardson 
purchased from the Hare Indians, became greatly attached 
to him, and when about seven months old, ran on the snow, 
by the side of his sledge, for 900 miles, without sufiering 
from fatigue. " During this march it frequently, of its own 
accord, carried a small twig or one of my mittens for a mile 
or two ; but although very gentle in manners, it showed 
little aptitude in learning any of the arts which the New- 
foundland dogs so speedily acquire of fetching and carrying 
when ordered. This dog was killed and eaten by an Indian 
on the Saskatchawan, who pretended that he mistook it for 
a fox." 

The flesh of dogs is much esteemed by the Canadian 
voyagers, and by several of the Indian tribes. The Chipe- 
wyans, however, who deem themselves descended from a 
dog, hold the practice of using it as an article of food in 
great abhorrence. 



QUAimUPEDS. 251 

Ihere are many species of fox in-North America. The 
American red fox {Ca7iis fulvus) inhabits the woody dis- 
tricts of the fur-countries, and from thence about 8000 of 
the skins are annually imported into England. Pennant, 
and many other authors of last century, regarded the 
species as identical with the common European kind ; from 
which, however, it was shown by M. Palisot de Beauvoisto 
be quite distinct. The American species is distinguished 
by its longer and finer fur, and more brilliant colouring. 
Its cheeks are rounder ; its nose thicker, shorter, and more 
truncated ; its eyes are nearer to each other, and its feet 
are in general much more woolly beneath. The red fox has 
a finer brush, and is altogether a larger animal than the 
European ; yet it does not possess the continuous speed of 
the latter ; it seems to exhaust its strength almost at the 
first burst, and is then overtaken without much difliculty, 
either by a mounted huntsman or a wolf. The cross fox 
(C. decussatus) and the black or silver fox (C argcntatus) 
are considered by some as distinct species, while others, 
probably with greater correctness, view them in the light of 
local or accidental varieties. Besides these, we may name 
as American species, the kit-fox (C. cinereo-argentatus\ 
and the arctic fox, commonly so called (C lagopus). The 
latter occurs also in the Old World. 

Several kinds of lynx inhabit North America j but we 
shall not here enter on their history. 

We cannot, however, so slightly pass the beaver of these 
northern regions (Castor fiber, Amcricanus), one of the most 
valuable and noted of quadrupeds. Its description is con- 
tained in almost every book of natural history ; and we shall 
therefore confine ourselves in this place to such particulars 
as illustrate its general habits. As the history of this ani- 
mal given by Hearne has been characterized by competent 
authority as the most accurate which has yet been presented 
to the public, we shall here abridge it for the benefit of our 
readers. 

As the beaver not only furnishes an excellent food, but is 
highly valuable for the sake of its skin, it naturally attracted 
the particular attention of the last-named traveller. The 
situation of beaver-houses was found to be various. When 
the animals are numerous they inhabit lakes, ponds, and 



252 NATURAL HISTORY. 

rivers, as well as those narrow creeks which connect the 
lakes together. Generally, however, they prefer flowing 
waters, probably on account of the advantages presented by 
the current in transporting the materials of their dwellings. 
They also prefer deepish water, no doubt because it affords 
a better protection from the frost. It is when they build in 
small creeks or rivers, the waters of which are liable to dry 
or be drained off, that they manifest that beautiful instinct 
with which Providence has gifted them — the formation of 
dams. These differ in shape according to their particular 
localities. When the water has little motion the dam is 
almost straight ; when the current is cojisiderable it is 
curved, with its convexity towards the stream. The mate- 
rials made use of are drift-wood, green willows, birch, and 
poplars ; also mud aiid stones intermixed in such a manner 
as must evidently contribute to the strength of the dam ; 
but there is no particular method observed, except that the 
work is carried on with a regular sweep, and all the parts 
are made of equal strength. " In places which have been 
long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by fre- 
quent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a 
great force both of ice and water ; and as the willow, pop- 
lar, and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by 
degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have 
seen in some places so tall that birds have builL their nests 
among the branches."* . ~ 

The beaver-houses are built of the same materials as the 
dams ; and seldom contain more than four old and six or 
eight young Ones. There is little order or regularity in 
their structure. It frequently happens that some of the 
larger houses are found to have one or more partitions, but 
these are only parts of the main building left by the 
sagacity of the beavers to support the roof; and the apart- 
ments, as some are pleased to consider them, have usually 
no communication with each other, except by water. Those 
travellers who assert that the beavers have two doors to 
their dwellings, one on the land side and the other next the 
water, manifest, according to Hearne, even a greater igno- 
rance of the habits of these animals than those who assign 
to them an elegant suite of apartments, — for such a con- 

* Hearne'B Journey to the Northern Ocean. 



QUADRUPEDS. 253 

struction would render their houses of little use, either as a 
protection from their enemies, or as a covering from the 
winter's cold. 

It is not true that beavers drive stakes into the ground 
when building their houses ; they lay the pieces crosswise 
and horizontal ; neither is it true that the woodwork is first 
finished and then plastered ; for both houses and dams con- 
sist from the foundation of a mingled mass of mud and 
wood, mixed with stones when these can be procured. 
They carry the mud and stones between their fore-paws, 
and the wood in their mouths. They always work in the 
night and with great expedition. They cover their houses 
late every autumn with fresh mud, which freezes when the 
frosts set in, and becomes almost as hard and solid as 
stone ; and thus neither wolves nor wolverenes can disturb 
their repose. When walking over their work, and especially 
when about to plunge into the water, they sometimes give 
a peculiar flap with their tails, which has no doubt occa- 
sioned the erroneous belief that they use these organs ex- 
actly as a mason uses his trowel. Now a tame beaver will 
flap by the fireside where there is nothing but dust and 
ashes ; and it therefore only uses the trowel in common 
with the water-wagtail, — in other words, the quadruped as 
well as the bird is characterized by a peculiar motion of its 
caudal extremity. 

The food of this animal consists chiefly of the root of 
the plant called Nuphar luteum, which bears a resemblance 
to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and 
rivers. It also gnaws the bark of birch, poplar, and willow 
trees. In summer, however, a more varied herbage, with 
the addition of berries, is consumed. When the ice breaks 
up in the spring, the beavers always leave their houses and 
rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when 
they return again to their old habitations, and lay in their 
winter stock of wood. Hearne gives the following account 
of some tame beavers which belonged to him ; — " In cold 
weather they were kept in my own sitting-room, where they 
were the constant companions of the Indian women and 
children, and were so fond of their company that when the 
Indians were absent for any considerable time, the beavers 
discovered great signs of uneasiness, and on their return 
showed equal marks of pleasure, by fondling on them^ 



1^54 NATURAL HISTORY. 

crawling into their laps, lying on their backs, sitting erect 
like a squirrel, and behaving like children who see their 
parents but seldom. In general, during the winter, they 
lived on the same food as the women did, and were remark- 
ably fond of rice and plum-pudding ; they would eat par- 
tridges and fresh venison very freely, but I never tried them 
with fish, though I have heard they will at times prey on 
them. In fact, there are few graminivorous animals that 
may not be brought to be carnivorous."* According to 
Kalm, Major Roderfert, of New- York, had a tame beaver 
above half a year in his house, where it went about quite 
loose like a dog. The major gave him bread, and some- 
times fish, of which he was said to have been greedy. He 
got as much water in a bowl as he wanted, and all the rags 
and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a cor- 
ner, where he was accustomed to sleep, and made a bed of 
them. The house cat on one occasion, happening to pro- 
duce kittens, took possession of the beaver's bed without 
his offering her any opposition. When the cat went out 
the beaver often took a kitten between his paws, and held 
it to his breast, as if for the purpose of keeping it warm ; 
but as soon as the proper parent returned he delivered up 
the offspring.! 

Another well-known amphibious quadruped of America 
is the musk-rat, or musquash {Fiber Zibethicus). Its fur 
resembles that of the beaver, but is shorter ; the down is 
coarser and less valuable, and the more lengthened part of 
the coat is weaker and not so shining. It is easily wetted 
after death, although it resists the water well when the 
animal is alive. The musk-rat measures about fourteen 
inches, exclusive of the tail, which is eight or ten inches 
long. It has a strong smell of musk, especially in the 
spring. Its flesh, however, is eaten by the Indians ; it re- 
sembles flabby pork. This species extends from the thir- 
tieth to about the seventieth degree of north latitude. 
♦' Their favourite abodes are small grassy lakes or swamps, 
or the grassy borders of slow-flowing streams, where there 
is a muddy bottom. They feed chiefly on vegetable mat- 

* Hearne's Journey to the Northern Ocean. 
t Kalm's Travels in Nor^h America. 



QtJADRUPEl>S. 255 

ters, and in northern districts principally on the roots and 
tender shoots of the bulrush and reed mace, and on the 
leaves of various carices and aquatic graisses. The sweet 
flag {Acorus calamus), of whose roots, according to Pen- 
nant, they are very fond, does not grow to the northward 
of Lake Winipeg. In the summer they frequent rivers, 
for the purpose, it is said, of feeding upon the fresh-water 
muscles. We often saw small collections of muscle-shells 
on the banks of the larger rivers, which we were told had 
been left by them."* 

Before the frosts set in, the musquash builds a house of 
mud, of a conical form, with a sufficient base to elevate the 
chamber above the level of the water. It generally chooses 
a spot covered with long grass, which it incorporates with 
the mud. It uses no kind of composition with which to 
agglutinate these materials ; but there is usually a dry bed 
of grass deposited within the chamber. The entrance is 
under water. Dr. Richardson informs us that when ice 
forms over the surface of the swamp, the musquash makes 
breathing-holes through it, and protects them from the frost 
by a covering of mud. During severe winters, however, 
these holes are frequently frozen up, and many die. Hats 
are manufactured from the skins of these animals ; and for 
that purpose between four and five hundred thousand are 
imported into Great Britain evsry year. 

Several species of meadow-mice and lemmings (Gen. 
Arvicola and Georychus) inhabit the northern regions. Our 
restricted limits, however, do not admit of our particularizing 
these tribes. 

An animal equalling the Norway rat in size, and men- 
tioned by Lewis and Clarke under the name of rat of the 
Rocky Mountains, was described in the Zoological Jour- 
nal,t and is now known as the Rocky Mountain neotoma 
{N. Drummondii, Rich.). It is of a yellowish-brown colour 
above, white beneath, with a tail exceeding the length of 
the body, and bushy at the extremity. According to Mr. 
Drummond, it makes its nest in the crevices of rocks, 
seldom appearing in the daytime. It is a very destructive 
animal in stores and encampments. It gnaws furs and 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 117. 
t No. 12, March, 1828, p. 517. 



256 NATURAL HISTORY. 

blankets to pieces, and Mr. Drummond, having placed a 
pair ot stout English shoes on a shelving rock, found on 
nis return that they had been minced into fragments as fine 
as sawdust. 

Though neither the black nor brown rat, nor the common 
mouse of Europe, are native to America, they now occur 
by importation in many parts of the New World. The 
American field-mouse {Mus leucopus) becomes an inmate of 
the dwelling-houses as soon as they are erected at any 
trading port. In the northern districts it extends across 
the whole country from the shores of Hudson's Bay to the 
mouth of the Columbia. " The gait and prying actions of 
this little creature," says Dr. Richardson, *' when it ven- 
tures from its hole in the dusk of the evening, are so much 
like those of the English domestic mouse, that most of the 
European residents at Hudson's Bay have considered it to 
be the same animal, altogether overlooking the obvious dif- 
ferences of their tails and other peculiarities. The Ame- 
rican field-mouse, however, has a habit of making hoards 
of grain or little pieces of fat, which I believe is unknown 
of the European domestic mouse ; and, what is most singu- 
lar, these hoards are not formed in the animal's retreats, but 
generally in a shoe left at the bedside, the pocket of a coat, 
a nightcap, a bag hung against a wall, or some similar 
place."* This species may be regarded as the representa- 
tive of the Mus sylvaticus of Europe. Its most inveterate 
foe is the ermine or stoat, which pursues it even into the 
sleeping apartments. 

Many marmots inhabit North America.f Of these, how- 
ever, we shall here make meption of only a single species, 
the wistonwish or prairie marmot (^Arctomys Liidovicianus). 
This animal is called prairie dog by Sergeant GassJ and 
Lieutenant Pike,^ and it is also the barking-squirrel of 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 142. 

t For a detailed account of these animals see Mr. Sabine's paper in 
Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. ; the Appendix to Franklin's First Journey ; Dr. 
Harlan's Fauna Americana; Dr. Godman's American Natural History; 
Griffith's Animal Kingdom ; Pallas's Novas Species Quadrupedium e 
Glirium Ordine ; Pennant's Arctic Zoology ; and Dr. Richardson's work 
60 frequently above referred to. 

J Journal of the Travels of a Corps of Discovery, &c. 

Travels on the Missouri and Arkansaw. 



QUADRUPEDS. 257 

Lewis and Clarke.* The entrance to the burrows of this 
species descends at first vertically, and then continues 
downwards in an oblique direction. They occur at inter- 
vals of twenty feet, and when numerous they are called 
prairie dog villages. The animals delight to sport about 
their own doors in pleasant weather. On the approach of 
danger, they either retreat to their holes or sit for a time 
barking and flourishing their tails, or sitting in an erect 
position, as if to reconnoitre. When shot by the hunter, 
they generally tumble into their burrows, and are thus not 
easily laid hold of, either dead or alive. They pass the winter 
in a state of torpidity, and lay up no provisions. The 
sleeping apartments consist of neat globular cells of fine 
dry grass, with a small aperture at the top, — the whole so 
compactly formed that it may almost be rolled over the 
floor without being damaged. The warning cry of this 
animal bears some resemblance to the hurried barking of a 
small dog.f 

The squirrel-tribe are also very numerous in the countries 
now under consideration. The chickaree or Hudson's Bay 
squirrel {Sciurus Hudsonius, Pennant) inhabits the forests 
of white spruce-trees which cover so vast a portion of the 
fur-countries. It extends as far to the south as the middle 
states of America, and spreads northwards to the utmost 
regions of the spruce-forests, which cast their sombre shade 
as high as the sixty-ninth parallel. It burrows at the root 
of the largest trees, and seldom stirs abroad during cold or 
stormy weather ; but even in the depth of winter it may 
be seen sporting among the branches whenever the snow is 
brightened by a gleam of sunshine. When pursued it 
makes great leaps for a time from tree to tree, but ere long 
seeks a favourable opportunity of descending into a burrow. 
However, it seldom voluntarily quits its own particular tree. 
During the winter season it collects the spruce-ccnes, and 
carrying them to the outskirts of its burrow, it picks out the 
seeds beneath the snow. 

Of the flying-squirrels of America we may memion the 
species (or variety ?) discovered by Mr. Drummond on the 
Rocky Mountains {Pteromys Sabrinus, var. B. alpinus.) It 

* Travels to the Pacific Ocean. 

t Say's Notes to Long's Expedition to ttie Rocky Mountains. 
Y2 



258 NATURAL HISTORY. 

inhabits dense pine-forests, and rarely ventures from its re- 
treats except during the night. 

Passing over the sand-rats (genus Gcomys, Rafinesque),* 
and the genus Aplodontia of Richardson, t v^e shall give a 
short account of the Canada porcupine {Hystrix pilosus of 
Catesby, H. dorsata, Linn.). This singular animal is dis- 
tributed over a considerable extent of America, from the 
thirty-seventh to the sixty-seventh degree of north latitude. 
Dr. Harlan informs us that it makes its dwelling-place be- 
neath the roots of hollow trees. It dislikes water, is cleanly 
in its habits, sleeps much, and feeds principally on the bark 
and leaves of Pinus Canadensis and Tilia glabra. It has 
been known to strip a tree entirely of its leaves, and is also 
fond of sweet apples and Indian corn. When discovered 
on the ground this animal does not strive to get out of the 
way ; but, on being approached, it immediately spreads the 
spines near the tail over the whole of the back. The 
female brings forth annually three or four young at a birth, 
after a gestation of forty days. 

In the fur-countries the porcupine is most numerous in 
sandy districts covered with Pinus Banksiana, on the bark 
of which it delights to feed, as well as on that of the larch and 
spruce-fir, and the buds of the various kinds of willows. 
The Indian dogs do not decline to attack this " fretful" 
creature, and they soon kill it, though not without injury to 
themselves ; for its quills, which it never fails to erect when 
attacked, are dangerous from the minute teeth, directed 
backwards, with which they are furnished. The points are 
extremely sharp, and are no sooner lodged beneath the skin 
of an assailant than they begin to bury themselves, and 
finally produce death by transfixing some vital organ. 
These spines are detachable by the slightest touch, or, as 
some say, by the will of the animal, and soon fill the mouths 
of the dogs by which it is attacked, and seldom fail to 
kill them, unless carefully picked out by the Indian women. 
Wolves also sometimes die from the same cause.J Its 
flesh tastes like flabby pork, and though by no means 

* American Monthly Mag. for 1817, p. 45. 

t Zoological Journal, January, 1819. 

t Fauna Boreali- Americana, vol. i. p. 215. 



QUADRUPEDS. 259 

agreeable to European palates, is much relished by the In 
dians. The quills are variously died, and are used in the 
working of different ornaments and articles of hunting- 
apparel. 

There are four species of hare in North America. We 
shall give a short history and description of each. 

1st, The American hare, commonly so called {Lepus 
Americanusy Erxleben). This species bears a great resem- 
blance to the European rabbit. It seldom w^eighs more than 
four pounds. In winter it is covered with a thick coat of 
fine long fur, externally of a pure white colour, except a 
narrow border on the posterior margins of the ears, and round 
their tips, and about one-third down their anterior margins, 
which are blackish-brown, on account of the dark roots of 
the hair being visible. In summer the fur of the upper 
parts is shining blackish-gray at the roots, but tinged towards 
the tips with yellowish-brown and black. There is a large 
proportion of black on the back, and the resulting colour of 
the surface is a dark umber-brown, mixed with yellowish- 
brown. A white circle surrounds the eye. The white 
colour commences between the fore-legs, and extending 
over the under parts, predominates on the extremities. The 
sides are of a dull pale, yellowish-brown. The ears are 
nearly naked during this season. The tail is white below, 
mixed above with gray and brown. This species is common 
in woody districts all over the continent of North America. 
It abounds on Mackenzie River as high as the sixty-eighth 
parallel ; but it appears to be replaced by the larger species 
both on the " Barren Grounds" to the eastward, and on 
the extensive plains through which the Missouri and Sas- 
katchawan take their far-flowing courses. In summer it 
eats grass and other vegetables, and in winter willow-bark 
forms a principal part of its sustenance. It never burrows, 
and is much preyed on both by man and beast. The furs 
of this species are imported into Britain under the name of 
rabbit-skins. Twenty-five thousand have been taken at a 
trading-post in Hudson's Bay in a single season. 

2d, The polar hare {Lepus glacialis, Leach). Dr. Leach 
appears to have first discriminated this species from the 
varying hare. It inhabits both sides of Baffin's Bay, and 
is common over the north-eastern districts of America. It 



260 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is not known to advance southward beyond the fifty-eighth 
parallel, and does not occur in wooded countries. How- 
ever, it is often seen in the vicinity of thin clumps of spruce- 
fir. It digs no burrow, but seeks the natural shelter of 
large stones. The winter-fur of this species is of a snow- 
white hue, even to the roots. It is denser and of a finer 
quahty than that of the preceding. Summer specimens 
killed in Melville Island (lat. 75°) had the hair of the back 
and sides of a grayish-brown colour towards the points. 
The weight of this species varies from seven to fourteen 
pounds. The flesh is whitish and excellent, being much 
superior in flavour to that of the American hare> and more 
juicy than the alpine hare of Scotland. 

3d, The prairie hare {Lepus Virginianus, Harlan). The 
fur of this species is intermediate in fineness and density 
between that of the two species just noticed. It is common 
on the north and south branches of the Saskatchawan, and 
on the plains of the Missouri, as well as on those of the 
Columbia River. It frequents open districts and clumps of 
wood, and its general habits resemble those of the European 
hare. This hare is pure white in winter, with the excep- 
tion of the borders of the ears, which are of a wood-brown 
er fawn-colour. In summer, the head, neck, back, shoulders, 
and outer parts of the legs and thighs are of a lead-colour. 
The lower parts are white, with a tinge of lead-colour. In 
the month of March the summer- fur appears in combination 
with the spotless garb of winter, and is characteristic from 
the middle of April to the middle of November, after which 
the snowy dress again prevails. This species can leap 
twenty-one feet at a single spring. It weighs from seven to 
eleven pounds. 

4th, The little chief hare {Lepis [Lagomys'] princepst 
Rich.). This is a small animal, of a blackish-brown colour 
above, and gray beneath. Its head is short and thick, and 
its ears are rounded. It inhabits the Rocky Mountains be- 
tween the fiftieth and sixtieth degrees, and was killed by 
Mr. Drummond near the sources of the Elk River. The 
favourite localities of this species are heaps of loose stones, 
through the interstices of which it makes its way with 
great facility. It is often observed, towards sunset, mounted 
on a stone, and calling to its mates in a shrill whistle. It 
does not appear to excavate burrows, but when approached 
by the hunter it utters a feeble cry, resembling that of a 



QUADRUPEDS. 261 

rabbit in distress, and instantly disappears among the stones. 
This cry of fear is repeated by its neighbours, if it has any, 
and is so deceptive as to appear at a great distance, while 
in fact the creatures are close at hand. The little chief 
hare (so called, we understand, from its expressive Indian 
appellation, huckathrce, kah-yawzcB) bears a resemblance to 
the alpine pika described by Pallas and Pennant as inhabit- 
ing Kamtschatka and the Aleoutian Islands. It is a diminu- 
tive animal, not measuring more than six or seven inches in 
length, and differs from the true hares in the number of its 
teeth. It also wants a tail. 

The next group to which we have to call the attention of 
the reader is one of great interest, from the size, value, 
and general importance in the economy of nature, of the 
species by which it is constituted, — we mean the deer-tribe 
of America. Of these about half a dozen different kinds 
inhabit the fur-countries. As in the other numerous groups, 
we must here restrict ourselves to the history of a very few 
species. 

The genus Cervus includes all those ruminating animals 
which are furnished with antlers. Two species are common 
to the northern parts of both continents ; five or six belong 
to North America ; four to America south of the equator ; 
and above a dozen to India, China, and the archipelagoes of 
the south-east of Asia.* Of these some inhabit marshy 
forests, others the wooded shores of rivers or the sea, while 
others again prefer the bleak sides and barren valleys of 
mountain-districts. The species vary occasionally in colour, 
and are subject to those changes of constitution to which 
all animals are more or less liable, and which physiologists 
have distinguished by the names of albinism and melanism, — 
the first applied to the white, the second to the black varieties 
of colour. It has also been remarked as rather a singular 
circumstance, that the white varieties occur more frequently 
in the equatorial regions than in the colder countries of the 
north, — a proof, perhaps, that the intensity of light and 

* For the natural history and description of many of the most remark' 
able of the Asiatic species, see " Historical and Descriptive Account of 
British India" (being Nos. XL VII., XLVIII., and XLIX. of the Family 
Library), vol. iii. 



262 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



heat are but secondary causes in the production of animal 
colours.* 

The elk or moose-deer (Cervus alces) is a gigantic animal, 
of a heavy and rather disagreeable aspect. It is easily re- 
cognised by the great height of its limbs, the shortness of its 
neck, its lengthened head, projecting muzzle, and short up- 




right mane. When full grown it measures above six feet 
in height. The fur is long, thick, and very coarse, of a 
hoary -brown colour, varying according to age and the season 
of the year. The antlers are very broad and solid, plain on 
the inner edge, but armed externally with numerous sharp 
points or shoots, which sometimes amount to twenty- 

* Desmoulins. 



QUADRUPEDS. 263- 

eight. A single antler has been known to weigh fifty-six 
pounds. 

The neck of the elk is much shorter than its head, which 
gives it almost a deformed appearance, though such a form- 
ation is in fact rendered necessary by the great weight of 
its antlers, which could not be so easily supported upon a 
neck of greater length. Notwithstanding the length of its 
muzzle, it collects its food wi^h difficulty from the ground^ 
being obliged either greatly to spread out or to bend its limbs. 
From this results its propentity to browse upon the tender 
twigs and leaves of trees, — a mode of feeding which the 
keepers of the French menagerie found it very difficult to 
alter in the individual under their charge. The upper part 
of the mouth is prolonged almost in the form of a s aall 
trunk, and furnished with muscles, which give it great flexi- 
bility of movement, and enable it rapidly to collect its food. 
In summer, during the prevalence of the gadflies in the 
Scandinavian peninsula, it plunges into marshes, where it 
often lies day and night, with nothing above water but its 
head. It is even said to browse upon the aquatic plants 
beneath the surface, making at the same time a loud blowing 
sound through its nostrils. 

The American elks live in small troops in swampy places. 
Their gait, according to Dr. Harlan, is generally a trot, and 
they are less active than most other deer. The old in- 
dividuals lose their horns in January and February, and the 
young in April and May. In regard to their geographical 
distribution, they appear to have been formerly found as far 
south as the Ohio. At present they occur only in the more 
northern parts of the United States, and beyond the Great 
Lakes. Captain Franklin met with several during his last 
expedition, feeding on willows at the mouth of the Macken- 
zie, in lat. 69°. Although they are said to form small herds 
in Canada, yet in the more northern parts they are very 
soUtary, more than one being seldom seen, except during 
the rutting-season, or when the female is accompanied by 
her fawns. The sense of hearing is remarkably acute in 
this species, and it is described as the shyest and most wary 
of the deer-tribe. It is an inoffensive animal, unless when 
irritated by a wound, when its great strength renders it for- 
midable, or during rutting-time, when it will kill a dog or a 
wolf by a single blow of its fore-foot. It is much sought 
after by the American Indians, both on account of the fleshy 



264 NATURAL HISTORY 

which is palatable, and the hides, with which they in part 
manufacture their canoes, and several articles of dress. 
The grain of the flesh is coarse, and it is tougher than that 
of any other kind of venison. In its flavour it rather 
resembles beef. The nose is excellent, and so is the tongue, 
although the latter is by no means so fat and delicate as that 
of the reindeer. The male elk sometimes weighs from a 
thousand to twelve hundred pounds. 

The reindeer {Ccrvus tarandus) is widely distributed 
over the northern parts of both the Old and New World. 
It has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, and is an 
animal of incalculable importance to the Laplander. We 
are less acquainted with the nature and attributes of the 
American species ; but we shall here follow the prevailing 
opinion, and consider it identical with that of the north of 
Europe and of Asia. There appear to be two varieties of 
reindeer in the fur-countries. One of these is confined to 
the woody and more southern districts, the other retires to 
the woods only during the winter season, and passes the 
summer either in the Barren Grounds or along the shores of 
the Arctic Sea. Heame's description applies to the latter 
kind, while the accounts given by the earlier French writers 
on Canada relate to the former. 

The reindeer of the Barren Grounds is of small stature,-, 
and so light of weight that a man may carry a full-groWn- 
doe across his shoulder. The bucks are of larger dimen- 
sions, and weigh, exclusive of the oflfal, from 90 to 130 
pounds. The skin of the reindeer is light, and being 
closely covered with hair, it forms a suitable and highly- 
prized article of winter-apparel. " The skins of the young 
deer make the best dresses, and they should be killed for 
that purpose in the months of August or September, as after 
the latter date the hair becomes too long and brittle. The 
prime parts of eight or ten deer-skins make a complete 
suit of clothing for a grown person, which is so impervious 
to the cold, that with the addition of a blanket of the same 
material, any one so clothed may bivouac on the snow with 
safety, and even with comfort, in the most intense cold of 
an arctic winter's night."* Dr. Richardson is of opinion 
that the flavour of the reindeer flesh is superior to that of 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 242. 



qUADRUPEDS, 265 

(he finest English mutton. However, the aitimal must be 
in prime condition, as its lean state is comparatively worse 
than that of other creatures, Pcmmican is formed by 
pouring one-third part of melted fat over the flesh of the 
reindeer after it is dried and pounded. Of all the deer- 
tribe of America this species is the most easily approached, 
and immense numbers are slaughtered for the use of the 
Indian families. 

The other variety of reindeer to which we have alluded 
above is called the woodland caribou. It is much larger 
than that of the Barren Grounds, has smaller horns, and 
is greatly inferior as an article of diet. The most remark- 
able peculiarity in the habits of this animal is, that it travels 
to the southward in the spring. It crosses the Nelson and 
the Severn Rivers in vast herds during the month of May, 
and spends the summer on the low marshy shores of James's 
Bay, returning inland, and in a northerly direction, in Sep- 
tember.* 

Passing over the prong-horned antelope {A. furcifcr, 
Smith), an inhabitant of the plains of the Missouri and 
Saskatchawan, remarkable for its extreme swiftness, we 
shall devote a few pages to the natural history of the wild 
sheep and goaf, of the Rocky Mountains, two of the most 
remarkable and important of the native quadrupeds of 
North America. (See the tollowing Plate.) 

The Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis montana, Desm. and 
Rich.) inhabits the range from which it derives its name,, 
from its northern termination, or at least from latitude 68°, 
to the fortieth degree of north latitude. It also dwells 
among many of the elevated and craggy ridges which inter- 
sect the country lying to the westward, between the prin- 
cipal range and the shores of the Pacific Ocean ; but it does 
not appear to have advanced beyond the eastern declivities 
of the Rocky Mountains, and it consequently does not 
occur in any of the hilly tracts nearer to Hudson's Bay. 
The favourite feeding-places of this species are " grassy 
knolls, skirted by craggy rocks, to which they can retreat 
when pursued by dogs ot wolves," Its flesh, when in sea- 

* For the history of the w^apiti (C. strongyloceros), the black-tailed 
deer (C macrotis, Say), and the long-tailed deer (C. leucurus, Douglas), 
we must refer to the writings of the various travellers and systematia 
authors named in the course o'' these chapters. 

z 



266 NATURAL HISTORY. 

son, IS stated by Mr. Drummond to be quite delicious,— as- 
being far superior to that of any of the deer-species, and 
even as exceeding in flavour the finest Enghsh mutton. 
This showy animal exceeds the Asiatic argali in size, and 
is much larger than the largest varieties of the domestic 
breeds. The horns of the male are very large. The ears 
are of moderate size. The facial line is straight, and the 
general form of the anunal, being, as it were, intermediate 
between that of the sheep and stag, is not devoid of ele- 
gance. The hair is like that of the reindeer, short, fine, 
and flexible, in its autumn growth ; but as the winter ad- 
vances, it becomes coarse, dry, and brittle, though still 
soft to the touch : it is necessarily erect at this season, 
from its extreme closeness. The hmbs are covered whh 
shorter hairs. In regard to colours, the head, buttock, and' 
posterior part of the abdomen are white ; the rest of the 
body and the neck are of a pale or dusky wood-brown. A 
deeper and more lustrous brown prevails on the fore-part 
of the legs. The tail is dark-brown, and a narrow brown 
line, extending from its base, divides the buttock, and 
unites with the brown colour of the back. The colours 
reside in the ends of the hair, and as these are rubbed off 
during the progress of winter, the tints become paler. 

The horns of the female are much smaller, and nearly 
erect, having but a slight curvature, and an inclination 
backwards and outwards.* 

The following are the dimensions of an old Rocky Moun- 
tain ram, killed on the south branch of the Mackenzie, and 
fiow in the Museum of the Zoological Society of London. 

Feet. Incheji 

Length of the head and body 6 

Height at the fore shoulder 3 5 

Length of tail 2 

Length of horn, measured along the curvature . . 2 10 

Circumference of horn at its base 1 1 

Distance front tip to tip of the horns 2 3 

These animals collect i^i flocks consisting of from three 
to thirty, the young rams and the females herding together 
during the winter and spring, while the old rams form 

* The Edinburgh College Museum contains a fine specimen of th« 
ttmtlt Rocky Mountain abeep. 



QUADRUPEDS, 269 

separate flocks, except during the month of December, 
which is their rutthig-season. " The ewes bring forth lu 
June or July, and then retire with their lambs to the most 
inaccessible heights. Mr. Drummond informs me, that in 
the retired parts of the mountains, where the hunters had 
seldom penetrated, he found no difficulty in approaching 
the Rocky Mountain sheep, which there exhibited the sim- 
plicity of character so remarkable in the domestic species ; 
but that where they had been often fired at they were ex- 
ceedingly wild, alarmed their companions on the approach 
of danger by a hissing noise, and scaled the rocks with 
a speed and agility that baffled pursuit. He lost several 
that he had mortally wounded, by their retiring to die among 
the secluded precipices."* 

When the first mission was established in California, 
nearly two centuries after the discovery of that country, 
Fathers Piccolo and de Salvatierra found " two sorts of 
deer that we know nothing of; we call them sheep because 
they somewhat resemble ours in make. The first sort is as 
large as a calf of one or two years old ; its head is much 
like that of a stag, and its horns, which are very large, are 
like those of a ram; its tail and hair are speckled, and 
shorter than a stag's, but its hoof is large, round, and cleft, 
as an ox's. I have eaten of these beasts ; their flesh is 
very tender and delicious. The other sort of sheep, some 
of which are white, and others black, diflfer less from ours. 
They are larger, and have a great deal more wool, which is 
very good, and easy to be spun and wrought."t The ani- 
mal first mentioned in the above quotation is the Rocky 
Mountain sheep ; the other is the wild-goat of these same 
districts, of which we shall now exhibit a brief history. t 

The Rocky Mountain goat inhabits the highest and least 
accessible summits. The precise limits of its territorial 
range have probably not yet been ascertained ; but it appears 
to extend from the fortieth to the sixty-fourth or sixty-fifth 
degree of north latitude. It is seldom or never observed 

* Fauna Boreali- Americana, vol. i. p. 273. 

t Phil. Trans. No. 318, p. 232. 

+ I have el.sewhere ob.served, that in the account of Lewis and 
Clarke's travels, in the Quarterly Review (vol. xii. p. 334, 362), there 
are two passages, which, if not corrected, would lead to an inaccurate 
conclusion regarding the origin of domestic sheep. See QuarterJj 
Journal of Affricultuve, No. ix. p. 374, Note. 
Z2 



270 NATURAL HISTORV. 

at any distance from the mountains, and is said to be less 
numerous on the eastern than the western sides. It was 
not met with by Mr. Drummond on the eastern declivities 
of the range, near the sources of the Elk River, where the 
sheep are numerous ; but he learned from the Indians 
that it frequents the steepest precipices, and is much more 
difficult to procure than the sheep. On the other hand, 
Major Long states, from the information of a foctor of the 
Hudson's Bay Company, that they are of easy access to 
the hunter. The flesh of this species is hard and dry, and 
somewhat unsavoury, from its musky flavour. Beneath its 
long hairy covering there is a coating of wool of the finest 
quality. " If the Highland Society and the Hudson's Bay 
Company were to combine their resources of ' ways and 
means,' the importation of this fine animal into the alpine 
and insular districts of Scotland might be eflfected without 
much difficulty or any great expense."* The fine wool of 
this species grows principally on the back and buttock, and 
is intermixed with long coarse hair.f 

The bison, or American buflfalo {Bos Americanus), is 
spread over a great portion of the temperate regions of 
America, and appears to extend southwards probably as 
far as the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude. Its charac- 
teristic positions, however, are the great prairies to the 
westward of the Mississippi, where, according to Dr. Harlan, 
they sometimes congregate in such vast troops that 10,000 
individuals are supposed to have been seen at one time. 
Although they inhabited the Carolinas at the period of the 
earliest colonization, they have long since retired towards 
the plains of the Missouri. None have been seen in Penn- 
sylvania for a long time, nor in Kentucky since about the 
year 1766. The influence exerted over the natural bound- 
aries of the brute creation is indeed strikingly illustrated 
by the geographical history of this species. It appears to 
have formerly existed throughout the whole extent of the 

* Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 353. 

t The synonymy of this animal is somewhat confused. It is the 
wool-bearing antelope, Antilope lanigera of Major Hamilton Smith : 
the mountain sheep (though distinct from the true Ovis montana) of 
Jameson and Ord ; the Mazama dorzata et sericea of Rafinesque ; the 
Rupicnpra Americana of De Blainville ; the Antilope Americana of 
Besraarest ; and the Capra Americana of Richardsoa. 



4iUADRlJPEDS. 271 

United States, with the possible exception of the territory 
to the east of Hudson's River and Lake Champlain, and of 
some narrow lines of coast along the Atlantic shores and 
the Gulf of Mexico. During the early part of the sixteenth 
century it was seen by Alvar Nunez near the Bay of St. 
Bernard, which may be regarded as its southern boundary 
on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountain 'chain. It ex- 
tends much farther north among the central than the eastern 
territories ; for we find that a bison was killed by Captain 
Franklin's expedition on the Salt River, in the sixtieth 
parallel ; while it has not been traced to any of those tracts 
which lie to the northward of Lakes Ontario, Erie, &c., 
and to the eastward of Lake Superior. Mr. Keating states 
that to the westward of Lake Winipeg the bison is found 
as far north as the sixty-second degree ;* and Dr. Richard- 
son adduces the testimony of the natives to show that they 
have taken possession of the flat limestone district of Slave 
Point, on the north side of Great Slave Lake, and have 
even wandered as far as the vicinity of Great Marten Lake, 
in latitude 63° or 64°. The Rocky Mountain range appears 
to have formerly opposed a barrier to the westerly progres- 
sion of the species ; but they are said to have discovered 
of late years a passage across these mountains, near the 
sources of the Saskatchawan. They are now known to 
occur both in California and New Mexico, and their exist- 
ence on the Columbia is also ascertained. 

The male bisons contend together with great fury during 
the rutting-season, and it is dangerous to venture near 
them at that period. In general, however, they are shy 
and wary, and there is more difficulty than danger in ap- 
proaching them ; but when wounded they will sometimes 
turn upon and pursue the hunter. " While I resided at 
Carlton House," Dr. Richardson informs us, '* an accident 
of this kind Occurred. Mr. Finnan M 'Donald, one of the 
Hudson's Bay Company's clerks, was descending the Sas- 
katchawan in a boat ; and one evening, having pitched his 
tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look for 
game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a 
bison-bull, which was galloping over a small eminence ; and 
as he was hastening forward to see if his shot had taken 

* Account of Major Long's Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's 
Biyer, vol. ii. chap. i. 



"272 NATURAL HISTORY. 

effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He had 
the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair 
on its forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn ; 
and being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle 
ensued, which continued until his wrist was severely 
sprained, and his arm was rendered powerless ; he then 
fell, and after receiving two or three blows became sense- 
less. Shortly afterward he was found by his companions 
lying bathed in blood, being gored in several places ; and 
the bison was couched beside him, apparently waiting to 
renew the attack had he shown any signs of life. Mr. 
M 'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of the in- 
juries he received, but died a few months afterward."*- 

The jflesh of a well-conditioned bison is juicy, and of 
excellent flavour. The tongue is a great delicacy, and may 
be so cured as to surpass the gusto of that part of an 
English cow. The hump, or wig, as it is sometimes called, 
has a fine grain, and is almost as rich and tender as the 
tongue. In regard to the external characters of the bison, 
the male is remarkable for the enormous size of its head, 
the conical elevation between the shoulders, its small 
piercing eyes, short black horns, and on the fore-quarters 
the great profusion of shaggy hair. Its hind-quarters 
appear comparatively weak, from the shortness of the woolly 
hair by which they are covered. The male sometimes 
weighs above 2000 pounds ; but 12 or 14 cwt. is regarded 
as a good weight in the fur-countries. It measures eight 
feet and a half in length, and above six feet high at the 
fore-quarter. The cow is smaller in the head and shoulders 
than the bull. 

According to Rafinesque, the bison has been domesti- 
cated in Kentucky and the Ohio.f It is even reported by 
some authors to have bred with the tame cow of European 
origin ; and the cross breed is said to continue prolific. 
This statement, however, requires confirmation. " Our 
inquiries on the spot," says Major H. Smith, " never pro- 
duced a proof, or even an assertion from the well-informed, 
that they had seen the hybrid oftspring." This animal is 
unknown to the Esquimaux on the shores of the Polar Sea. 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 291. 

t I state this on tbe information of M. Antoine Desmoulins, not 
having had i^.,in my power to peruse the work of the writer above named 



<iUADRUPEM. 273 

We shall conclude our account of the quadrupeds of 
North America with the description of the musk-ox (Ovi- 
hos moschatus of De Blainville). We stand indebted for 
<»ur systematic knowledge of this curious animal to Pen- 
liant, who received a specimen of the skin from the traveller 
Hearne ;* but it had been previously mentioned, after a 
vague fashion, by several of the early English voyagers, 
and M. Jeremie had imported a portion of the wool to 
France, from which stockings more beautiful than those of 
silk were manufactured. t When full grown, this animal 
is about the size of the small Highland cattle. The horns 
are remarkably broad at their bases, and cover the brow and 
crown of the head, touching each other for theif entire breadth 
from before backwards. The nose is blunt, and the head 
large and broad. The general colour of the coat is brown, 
and on the back there is a saddle-like mark of a brownish- 
white colour. The hair is very long. The horns of the 
cow are smaller than those of the male, and do not touch 
each other at their bases, and the hair on the throat and 
chest is shorter. 

The flesh of the musk-ox, in good condition, is well 
flavoured. It resembles that of the rein-deer, but is coarser 
grained, and smells strongly of musk. The carcass of this 
animal weighs, exclusive of the oflal, about 300 pounds. 
The wool is remarkably fine. This species inhabits a great 
extent of barren land to the northward of the sixtieth paral- 
lel. They visit Melville Island (north lat. 75°) in the month 
of May, but they do not, like the rein-deer, extend to 
Cfreenland and Spitzbergen. 

These are the principal quadrupeds of the northern re- 
gions of the New World. t 

* Arctic Zoology, vol. i. p. 11. 

t Voyage au Nord. Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France. 

i With a view to avoid repetition, we here omit the history of the 
seals and cetaceous tribes, as those departments have beeh pretty fully 
illustrated in a former volume of this series. See No. XIV. of the 
Family Library, entitled " Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in 
the Polar Seas and Regions," by Sir John Leslie, Professor Jameson, 
AJul Hugh Murray, Esq. 



274 NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER VII. 

The Birds of the Northern Regions of America, 

Turkey Buzzard— Golden-eagle— Bald-eagle—IIawks—Owls—Butcher- 
birds — Kingbird —Northern Tyrant — AnDerican Water-ouzel— Red- 
breasted Thrush — Blue-bird — Arctic Blue-bird — Cedar-bird, or Ameri- 
can Chatterer— Snow-bunting — Painted Bunting — Pine grosbeak— 
Evening-grosbeak — Scarlet Tanager — Cuckoo-bunting — Crows — 
Woodpeckers — Humming-birds — Swallows — Belied Kingfisher — 
Grouse — Passenger-pigeon — Grallatores — Natatores — Gulls— Rocky 
Mountain Golden-eye — Bewick's Swan — Trumpeter-swan — White 
Pelican— Great Northern Diver— Black-throated Diver- Guillemots. 

The difficulties attending the completion of an ornitho- 
logical history were complained of by Buffon, and the chief 
of these was stated by that illustrious observer as consisting 
in the fact that naturalists were already acquainted with 
800 species of the class ; and he further expressed his 
opinion that there might actually exist 1500 or even 2000 
different kinds of birds. Now, as nearly 6000 species of 
the feathered race have been ascertained up to the present 
period, and many new species are in the course of being 
discovered and described during every successive year, our 
readers may form some opinion of the laborious toil attend- 
ing the researches of these " degenerate days," in which 
people of such inferior capacity to the French Pliny have 
to grapple with a subject so infinitely more encumbered. 
No doubt the division of labour has been more attended to 
since the greater extension of the field of exercise, and 
jBuffon's brilliant genius was too often satisfied with vague 
generalities, unsupportable in proportion to the increase of 
that more definite knowledge which has been recently ac- 
quired. With an intellect so excitable and full of thought, 
and a flow of language so powerful and persuasive, it was 
no marvel that such a naturalist should have outstripped for 
a season all his competitors in the career of fame ; but the 
fable of the helix and the hare is not altogether inapplicable 
to the two classes of observers, of one of which Buffon was 
the head and front ; for tiiere was not only an occasional 



BIRDS. 275 

pause in his onward progress, but those who now follow his 
footsteps in the search of truth are too often obhged either 
to retrograde pr trace out a labyrinth with many windings. 
It is well, however, that such a master-spirit should in any 
way h^dve embraced the subject of natural history ; for it 
has too frequently happened that men of very steril genius, 
of whose mental constitution enthusiasm formed no por- 
tion, have imagined themselves devoted to the study. Now, 
even the obscurity and mistiness of Buffon, though perhaps 
not always equal to other people's sunshine, are yet com- 
posed of " clouds of glory," and hence the hold possessed 
by his writings, and by those of all belonging to the intel- 
lectual class of observers, to whom truth is as dear as it 
was to Aristotle, but lo whom nevertheless the common 
sights of earth 

" do sometimes seem 
Apparell'd in celestial light, 
The glory and the freshness of a dream." 

The extension which we have given to the history of 
North American quadrupeds in the preceding chapter, and 
which we bestowed in consequence of the greater importance 
usually attached to the mammiferous class, renders neces- 
sary a more restricted selection in the other branches. We 
regret this the less in relation to the feathered tribes, as an 
admirable history of American birds has been lately brought 
within reach of every class of readers.* We shall, how- 
ever, endeavour to exhibit a view of some of the more 
remarkable features of that department. 

Among birds of prey, the eagle tribe naturally claim our 
first attention ; but as it seems to be the practice of naturalists 
to give the vultures the precedence, we shall adhere to the 
usual course. 

The turkey-vulture, or turkey-buzzard, as it is called in 
America ( Cathartes aura), so common in the United States, 
occurs in the central districts of the fur-countries as far 



* American Ornitbologj', or the Natural History of the Birds of the 
United States. By Alexander Wilson and Charles Lucian Bonaparte ; 
edited by Robert Jameson, Esq., F.R.S.E <fe L., &c., four volumes. 
Edinburgh, 1831. In this edition (which forms volumes 78-81 of Con- 
stable's Miscellany) the subjects are systematically arranged for the first 
time, and many interesting additions have been inaerted by the distia* 
piiislied editor. 



276 NATURAL IIISTORV. 

north as the fifty-fourth degree. It is partially migratory, 
even in the middle states, and retires southwards on the ap- 
proach of winter. During their summer migration, a certain 
number of individuals reach the banks of the Saskatchawan, 
where they usually make their appearance when the month 
of June is far advanced, and after all the other summer- 
birds have arrived and settled in their leafy arbours. 
Though gregarious in the more southern parts of North 
America, where they roost together, and also both fly and 
feed in flocks, seldom more than a pair are seen in company 
towards their northern limits. They feed on carrion, which 
they discover at a great distance by the sense of sight alone ; 
for it appears by recent observation that their sense of smell 
is extremely defective. They usually breed on the stump 
of a decayed tree, and have been observed to return to the 
same spot for a series of successive years. They are not 
on^v foul feeders, but sometimes gorge themselves so im- 
moderately as to be incapable for some time afterward 
of taking wing. Mr. Ord has recorded that a man of Dela- 
ware, observing a group of turkey- buzzards regaling them- 
selves upon the putrid carcass of a horse, and having a mind 
to capture one of them, he cautiously approached the flock, 
and suddenly seized one of the fattest in his arms. The 
indignant vulture, however, immedixXtely disgorged such a 
torrent of tilth in his face, as to produce the effect of a 
powerful emetic, and cured him for ever after of all desire 
to catch any more turkey-buzzards. 

The golden-eagle (Aquila chrys(£tos\ of which the ring- 
tail {F. f ulcus) is regarded as the young, breeds among the 
sub-alpine recesses of tlve Rocky Mountains. The tail- 
feathers are highly valued by many tribes of American 
Indians for adorning their calumets or pipes of peace. 
The solitary habits of these birds, and the usually inacces- 
sible nature of the vast precipices where they hang their 
" procreant cradles," prevent our acquiring much know- 
ledge of the distinctive habits of the species, and hence 
our difficulty in discriminating between the American and 
European kinds. Wilson observed the ring-tail sailing" 
along the alpine declivities of the White Mountains of 
New-Hampshire, and over the Highlands of Hudson's 
River, and the adult bird, in the plumage of the golden- 
eagle, has also been observed in the United States. The 



BIRDS. 277 

■vision of this bird is said to be so acute and long-sighted 
that it can discover its prey from a height at which it is 
itself scarcely visible, notwithstanding the breadth of its 
wide-expanded wings. "A story is current," says Dr. 
Richardson, " on the plains of the Saskatchawan, of a half- 
breed Indian who was vaunting his prowess before a band 
of his countrymen, and wishing to impress them with a 
belief of his supernatural powers. In the midst of his 
harangue an eagle was observed suspended, as it were, in 
the air directly over his head, upon which, pointing aloft 
with his dagger, which glistened brightly in the sun, he 
called upon the royal bird to come down. To his own 
amazement, no less than to the consternation of the sur- 
rounding Indians, the eagle seemed to obey the charm, for 
instantly shooting down with the velocity of an arrow, it 
impaled itself on the point of his weapon !"* 

A large and powerful species, more generally known in 
America, though not peculiar to the New World, is the bald- 
eagle {Aquila Icucocephala). It resides all the year in the 
United States, but is a bird of passage in those more north- 
ern countries which lie between Great Slave Lake and Lake 
Superior. Fish form the favourite food of the bald-eagle, 
and there seems something more tyrannical in his mode ot 
obtaining it than altogether accords with the equality of 
republican legislation. " Elevated," says Wilson, " on the 
high dead limb of some gigantic tree, that commands a wide 
view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he seems calmly 
to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes 
that pursue their busy avocations below. The snow-white 
gulls, slowly winnowing the air ; the busy tringcB, coursing 
along the sands ; trains of ducks, streaming over the sur- 
face ; silent and watchful cranes, intent and wading ; 
clamorous crows, and uU the winged multitudes that subsist 
by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature : 
high over all these hovers one whose action instantly arrests 

* Fauna Boreali- American a, vol. ii., tlie Birds. By William Swainson, 
Esq., F.R.S.. F.L.S., &c.,and John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
Surgeon and Naturalist to the Expeditions. London, 1831. This skil- 
ful and beautifully illustrated vpork is one of the most valuable volumes 
which has recently appeared on the subject of ornithology ; and, viewed in 
connexion with the preceding publications of Wilson, C. L. Bonaparte, 
and Audubon, it goes far to complete our knov^fledge of the feathered 
tribes of the northern regions of the New World. 
Aa 



27& NATURAL HISTORY. 

all his attention. By his wide curvature of wing, and sud- 
den suspension in the air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk, 
settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye 
kindles at the sight, and balancing himself, with half-opened 
wings, on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid 
as an arrow, from heaven descends the object of his atten- 
tion ; the roar of its wings, reaching the ear as it disappears 
in the deep, making the surges foam around ! At this mo- 
ment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour, and level- 
ling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more 
emerge, struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air 
with screams of exultation. These are the signal for our 
hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and 
soon gains on the fish-hawk ; each exerts his utmost to 
mount above the other, displaying in these rencounters the 
most sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered eagle" 
rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his 
opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair 
and honest execration, the latter drops his fish ; the eagle, 
poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain 
aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere 
it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently 
away to the woods."* 

Of the smaller tribes of the FalconidcR which inhabit the 
fur-countries, we shall satisfy ourselves by a simple enume- 
ration of the names, t and proceed to the nocturnal birds of 
prey. 

Of the Strigida, or owls, Mr. Swainson has observed,- 
"They present an assemblage of birds as united among 
themselves as they are distinct from all others. There is, 
we believe, no one species yet discovered which even a 

* American Ornithology, vol. i. p. 23. We quote Professor Jameson's 
edition throughont this vn'lume. 

t The peregrine falcon (F. peregrinns), the jerfalcon (F. islandicus),- 
the American sparrow-hawk (F. sparverius), the pigeon-hawk (F. colum- 
barius), the merlin (F. cesalon), the goshawk (F. palumbarius), the 
slate-coloured hawk (F. Pennsylvanicus), the common buzzard (F. 
buteo), the red-tailed or American buzzard (F. boreaUs), the rough-legged 
falcon (F. lagopus), the American ring-tail (F. cijaneusJ). The preced- 
ing, with three species of eagle, raise the amount of northern accipitrine 
diurnal birds to fourteen. C. L. Bonaparte enumerates seventeen species 
in his " Synopsis," and has described an eighteenth in his Supplement 
to Wilson, under the name of Falco Cooperi. Mr. Audubon has likewise 



BIRDS. 279 

common observer would not immediately pronounce to be 
an owl, or would be in danger of confounding with a hawk 
or goat-sucker, the only two groups to which the Strigid© 
are related in immediate affinity. Yet, although this rela- 
tionship is too obvious to be doubted, it must be confessed 
that a considerable hiatus intervenes between both. Whe- 
ther these will be lessened by future discoveries, or whether 
owls, like the parrots, are in some degree an isolated group, 
whose aberrant forms no longer exist, are points which may 
always remain in obscurity." 

The largest of the North American species is the great 
cinereous owl {Strix cinerea). It inhabits a vast extent of 
woody territory from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific. It is 
common along the shores of Great Bear Lake, and of course 
in these and other higher latitudes must of necessity pursue 
its prey by daylight, the mantle of night being there a thing 
unknown during the summer season. However, it hunts 
chiefly when the sun is low, and when the shadows of the 
great woods are deep and lengthened ; for it is then that 
the American hares and many murine animals which form 
its favourite food are themselves abroad. On the 23d of 
May, Dr. Richardson discovered a nest of the cinereous 
owl, made of sticks and lined with feathers, on the top of a 
lofty balsam poplar-tree. It contained three young, covered 
over with a whitish down. He could only get the nest by 
felling the tree, which was a remarkably thick one ; and 
while the operation was going on, the about to be bereaved 
parents flew in anxious and repeated circles above and 
around the objects of their long solicitude, keeping, how- 
ever, so high in the air as to be beyond gunshot. The 
young were kept alive for a period of two months, after 
which they effected their escape. This species measures 
about two feet in length from bill to tail. 

The Virginian horned-owl {Sirix Virginiana) is another 
large species peculiar to America, but very widely diffused 

dedicated a new species, under the name of Falco Stanleii, to the noble 
president of the Linnaean Society. Four of Bonaparte's list, viz. F. 
plumbeus^ F. melanopterus, F. furcatus, and F. Peimsylvanicus, B., 
seem to occur only in the southern parts of the United States, and there- 
tore do not fall within our limits; but three others, the Stanley-hawk 
above named, along willi Buteo Sancti-Johannis and B. hyemalis, are 
supposed to be northern birds. The arctic range of Mr. Audubon's 
species is probably still unknown. 



280 NATURAL HISTORY. 

over the New World. It was killed by Mr. Drummond 
among the Rocky Mountains. It is known to inhabit the 
table-lands of Mexico, and even the species from the Straits 
of Magellan {Planches Enlwminecs, 585) appears to be iden- 
tical. In the United States it is extremely common, and 
inhabits the fur-countries wherever the timber is of large 
size. Its loud nocturnal cries, issuing from the gloomiest 
recesses of the forest, are said to bear a resemblance to a 
hollow and sepulchral human voice, and have thus been the 
frequent source of alarm to the benighted traveller. A 
party of Scottish Highlanders, in the service of the Hudson's 
Bay Company, happened in a winter's journey to encamp 
after nightfall in a dense clump of trees, the dark tops of 
which, and their lofty stems, gave a solemnity to the scene, 
strongly excitable of superstitious feelings. The solemn 
effect was heightened by the discovery of a tomb, which, 
with a natural taste not unfrequently exhibited by the In- 
dians, was placed in the centre of this secluded spot. The 
travellers had finished their evening repast, and were trim- 
ming their fire for the night, when for the first time the slow 
and dismal tones of the horned-owl fell on their ear. They 
at once concluded that a voice so mysterious and unearthly 
must be the moaning spirit of the departed, whose hallowed 
fane they had disturbed by inadvertently making a fire of the 
limber of his tomb. They consequently passed a long night 
of sleepless fear, and gladly quitted the ill-omened spot 
with the earliest dawn.* 

In our notices of these and other well-known species, we 
consider it unnecessary to enter into any minute descriptive 
details of plumage, preferring rather to illustrate their his- 
tory, distribution, and general modes of life, as more likely 
to interest the majority of readers. In the case, however, 
of any new or remarkable discovery, we may occasionally 
deviate from this rule, and, as an exception to our usual 
practice, we may here take an elegant species recently de- 
scribed for the first time under the name of the arctic or 
white-horned owl {Strix arctica). This fine owl is exceed- 
ingly rare, only a single specimen having been seen by the 
overland expeditions. It measures about two feet in length. 
Its general colour is white, tinged here and there with brown 

* Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. ii. p. 83. 



BIRDS. 281 

upon the dorsal aspect, and marked with crowded transverse 
blackish-brown bars and lines. The ground-colour of the 
under portion of the plumage is of a brilliant white, banded 
on the throat and flanks. The facial disk is imperfect, the 
ear-feathers are ample, the tail rounded, the bill short and 
strong. This bird was killed at Carlton House, in the 
month of May. 

We now enter upon a shoit consideration of the Inses- 
sorial or perching-birds, as they are called by the modern 
systematists. The order includes the Pica and Passeres 
of the Linnsean arrangement. We commence with the 
butcher-birds, genus Lanius. 

The American gray-shrike (Lanius excuiitorides of Swain- 
son), a newly-ascertained species, bears a great resemblance 
to the ash-coloured shrike of Europe. It does not advance 
farther to the northward than the fifty-fourth degree, and 
seems to attain to that latitude only in the meridian of the 
warm and sandy plains of the Saskatchawan, which are 
said to enjoy an earlier spring and longer summer than the 
densely-wooded countries between them and Hudson's Bay. 
It builds among willow-bushes, feeds on grasshoppers, and 
lays six eggs of a pale yellowish-gray, irregularly spotted 
with green and gray. 

Allied to the shrikes in many particulars are the tyrant 
fly-catchers. The king-bird {Tyrannus intrepidus) is one 
of the most remarkable for the boldness and reckless daring 
which he displays in his attacks on the largest of the fea- 
thered race. During the earlier months of summer, his life 
is one continued scene of broil and battle. According to 
Wilson, hawks and crows, the bald-eagle, and the great 
black-eagle, all equally dread an encounter with this daunt- 
less creature, who, as soon as he perceives a bird of prey, how- 
ever powerful, in his neighbourhood, darts into the air, and 
quickly ascending above his supposed enemy, pounces with 
violence upon his back, and continues his attack till his own 
domains have been departed from. He is likewise ob- 
noxious to the human race, on account of his love of bees ; 
for he will take post on a fence or garden-tree in the vicinity 
of the hives, and make continual sallies on the industrious 
insects as they pass to or from their never-ending labours. 
The American ornithologist has given a poetical version of 
Aa2 



282 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the life of this lively species, of which the following is the 
commencement : — 

" Far in the south where vast Maragnon flows, 
And boundless forests unknown wilds enclose , 
Vine-tangled shores and suffocating woods, 
Parch'd up with heat, or drown'd with pouring floods, 
Where each extreme alternately prevails, 
And nature sad their ravages bewails ; 
1.0 ! high in air above those trackless wastes ; 
With spring's return the king-bird hither hastes ; 
Coasts the famed gulf,* and, from his height, explores 
Its thousand streams, its long indented shores, 
Its plains immense, wide opening on the day. 
Its lakes and isles, where feather'd millions play ; 
All tempt not him : till, gazing from on high, 
Columbia's regions wide below him lie ; 
There end his wand'rings and his wish to roam, 
There lie his native woods, his fields, his home ; 
Down, circling, he descends, from azure heights, 
And on a full-blown sassafras alights. 

Fatigued and silent, for a while he views 
His old frequented haunts, and shades recluse ; 
Sees brothers, comrades, every hour arrive, ~ 
Hears, humming round, the tenants of the hive. 
Love fires his breast ; he woos, and soon is blest, 
Ynd in the blooming orchard builds his nest." — 

And so on. The king-bird migrates in summer at least as 
far north as the fifty-seventh parallel. It reaches Carlton 
House in the month of May, and retires southward in 
September. It feeds on insects and wild berries. 

A new species of this genus has been lately described 
under the title of northern tyrant {Tyramms borcalis, 
Swainson). It was shot on the banks of the Saskatcha- 
wan, but nothing is known of its habits. It is consider- 
ably smaller than the preceding, and may at once be dis- 
tinguished from it by its forked tail, not tipped with white. 

Among the Merulidce or thrushes we may here mention 
the representative of our water-ouzel, the American dipper 
(Cinclus Americanus). Although ascertained by Mr. W. 
Bullock to be an inhabitant of Mexico, and obtained by Mr. 
Drummond on the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains, 
near the sources of the Athabasca River, it does not yet ap- 
pear to have been detected in the intermediate regions of 

* Of Mexico. 



BIRDS. 283 

the United States. According to Bonaparte, this species 
measures eight inches and a half. It is consequently 
longer than the European dipper or water-crow. The 
general plumage is dark-grayish slate-colour. The legs 
and feet are flesh-colour. We as yet know nothing of the 
habits of the American species, but its European congener 
dwells single or in pairs by the side of clear and swift- 
running streams. It walks under water in search of prey, 
Wading in from the shore, and remaining for some time sub- 
merged. *^ 

The bird called rohin in America is the red-breasted 
Jhrush of Pennant {Turdus migratorius). It is one of their 
best known and earliest songsters. While the fields are 
yet dappled with snow, they are seen in flocks, and some 
few lively aspirants will even then mount to the top of a 
post, and make attempts at song. As the season advances 
their notes are universally heard, and as universally beloved, 
and are regarded as the " prelusive symphony" to the great 
concert which is about to burst ere long from numerous 
bills, from every thicket, wood, and field. Although re- 
garded with much of the same feeling as that which we 
ourselves entertain towards our own household bird, the red- 
breast, they are, nevertheless, brought to market in great 
numbers, and Wilson mentions that in the month of Janu- 
ary, 1807, two young men shot thirty dozen in a single 
excursion. This species inhabits the whole of North 
America from Hudson's Bay to Nootka Sound, and as far 
south as Georgia, though they are said rarely to breed on 
this side the mountains farther south than Virginia. " With- 
in the Arctic Circle," Dr. Richardson has beautifully ob- 
served, " the woods are silent in the bright light of noon- 
day ; but towards midnight, when the sun travels near the 
horizon, and the shades of the forest are lengthened, the 
concert commences, and continues till six or seven in the 
morning. Even in those remote regions the mistake of 

* While engaged in the correction of these sheets for the press, we 
bave been favoured by Sir William Jardine with a copy of his yet un- 
published edition of Wilson's American Ornithology. Many valuable 
notes have been appended by the editor to illustrate the general distribu- 
tion of those groups, of which there are American representatives. The 
supplementary volumes by C. L. Bonaparte are included ; and most of 
the new species discovered or described by Messrs. Swaiason, Richard- 
son, and AuduboQ, are likewise inserted or referred to. 



284 NATURAL HISTORY. 

those naturalists who have asserted that the feathered tribea 
of America are void of harmony might be fully disproved. 
Indeed, the transition is so sudden from the perfect repose, 
the deathlike silence of an Arctic winter, to the animated 
bustle of summer ; the trees spread their foliage with such 
magical rapidity, and every succeeding morning opens with 
such agreeable accessions of feathered songsters to swell 
the chorus — their plumage as gay and unimpaired as when 
they enlivened the deep green forests of tropical climes— 
that the return of a northern spring excites in the mind a 
deep feeling of the beauties of the season, a sense of the 
bounty and providence of the Supreme Being, which is 
cheaply purchased by the tedium of nine months of winter. 
The most verdant lawns and cultivated glades of Europe, 
the most beautiful productions of art, fail in producing 
that exhilaration and joyous buoyancy of mind which we 
have experienced in treading the wilds of Arctic America, 
when their snowy covering has been just replaced by an in- 
fant but vigorous vegetation. It is impossible for the traveller 
to refrain, at such moments, from joining his aspirations to 
the song which every creature around is pouring forth to 
the Great Creator." This is finely said, and loses none of 
its force as proceeding from the pen of one not given to 
affect a sickly sentimentalism, but who has ever had to do 
more with the practice than the poetry of life and nature. 
In a similar strain so also wrote the divine Milton, — but 
to whorn the freshness of spring, the azured mantle of 
the glorious summer, and the varied splendour of the far- 
spreading autumnal forests, were then only as visions of 
the past — 

" So thick a drop serene 
Had quench'd his orbs, or dim suffusion veil'd." . 

Of many beautiful and interesting species of the family 
of the SyhiadcR which enliven the countries of our present 
inquiry, we shall confine our observations to the blue-birds. 

The common blue-bird {Saxicola sialis, Bon., Erythaca 
Wilsonii, Swain.) has the whole of the upper plumage of 
a fine blue, while the throat, neck, breast, and flanks are 
bright orange-brown. The general character and move- 
ments of this bird resemble those of the Europe^i) jed- 



BIRDS. 285 

breast, and he is himself as familiarly known in summer to 
the children of America, as the robin is to ourselves in the 
winter season. Wilson informs us that the society of the 
blue-bird is much courted by the inhabitants of the country, 
and that few farmers neglect to provide for him a snug 
little summer-house, ready fitted and rent-free. He is 
migratory over the northern districts, but a few remain 
throughout the winter in some parts of the United States. 

A newly-discovered species, nearly allied to the preceding, 
is named by Mr. Swainson the Arctic blue-bird {Erythaca 
Arctica). Its colour is a fine ultramarine blue above, be- 
neath greenish-blue, and whitish on the lower part of the 
abdomen and under tail-coverts. The only specimen pro- 
cured by the overland expedition was shot at Fort Frank- 
lin in July, 1825. It is merely a summer visiter of the fur- 
countries, and no knowledge of its haunts or habits has been 
yet obtained. 

To illustrate the Ampelidce we shall merely mention the 
American cedar-bird, or chatterer of Carolina, as it was 
called by Edwards {Bomhy cilia Americana). This bird was 
regarded by the naturalists of last century as a mere variety 
of the European or Bohemian chatterer. It is, however, 
a distinct species, of smaller size, and has no white upon 
the wings ; the chin has less black, and the bill is shorter 
and somewhat broader. The European bird has also been 
.detected in North America by Mr. Drummond and Dr. 
Richardson. 

The well-known snow-bunting (Em&erz^a nivalis) is com- 
mon to the New and Old World. " Near the large grave," 
says Captain Lyon, " was a third pile of stones covering 
the body of a child which was coiled up in the same man- 
ner. A snow-bunting had found its way through the loose 
stones which composed this httle tomb, and its now for- 
saken, neatly built nest, was found placed on the neck of 
the child. As the snow-bunting has all the domestic vir- 
tues of our English redbreast, it has always been considered 
by us as the robin of these dreary wilds, and its lively chirp 
and fearless confidence have rendered it respected by the 
most hungry sportsman. I could not on this occasion view 
its little nest placed on the breast of infancy, without wish- 
ing that I possessed the power of poetically expressing the 



^86 NATURAL HISTORY. 

feelings it excited."* The bold navigator may rest assured 
that his simple recital of this circumstance is much more 
effective and pictorial than if he had recourse to a rhyming 
dictionary. The Lapland bunting {E. Lapponica) is also 
found in the northern regions of both continents ; and a 
beautiful species, nearly allied to it, the painted bunting {Plec- 
trophanespicta of Svvainson), was lately discovered on the 
banks of the Saskatchawan. For the history and description 
of these, as well as of many beautiful larks and finches, 
we must refer the reader to the works already mentioned. 

The pine-grosbeak {Pyrrhula enuclcator) is the largest 
of the bullfinch tribe. It measures above eleven inches in 
length. Of the grosbeaks, properly so called (genus Coc- 
cothraustcs), the gayest and most remarkable is called the 
evening-grosbeak (C. vespertina, Bon.). It is a common 
inhabitant of the maple-groves which adorn the plains of 
the Saskatchawan, and is known to the natives by the name 
of seesehasquit-pcthaysish, which, being interpreted, signi- 
fies sugar-bird. According to Mr. Swainson's views, this 
is the only genuine species of the genus hitherto discovered 
in America. We owe it to the observance of Mr. Cooper.t 

The scarlet tanager {Tanagra rubra) is one of the most 
brilliant of those southern species which during the summer 
migration shed their lustre over more northern lands. The 
whole plumage, with the exception of the wings and tail, 
is of the most vivid carmine-red. The wing-coverts, pos- 
terior secondaries, and middle tail-feathers are black, and 
form a rich contrast to the other portions of the plumage. 
After the autumnal moult, the male becomes dappled with 
greenish-yellow. The plumage of the female is green above 
and yellow below ; her wings and tail are brownish-black, 
edged with green. Though this species sometimes builds 
in orchards, and visits the cherry-trees for the sake of their 
fruit, it does not frequently approach the habitations of man, 
but prefers the solitude of the umbrageous woods. In ad- 
dition to fruits, its food consists of large winged insects, 
such as wasps, hornets, and bumblebees. The scarlet 
tanager is as yet unknown beyond the forty-nmth parallel, 
^nd so comes just within the southern limits of the fur- 

* Narrative of an Attempt to reach Repulse Bay. 

* Ann. Lye. New York, vol. i. p. 220. 



BIRDS. 28^ 

countries. The following interesting narrative is given by 
Alexander Wilson: — "Passing through an orchard ond 
morning, I caught one of these young birds, that had but 
lately left the nest. I carried it with me about half a 
mile, to show it to my friend Mr. William Bartram ; and 
having procured a cage, hung it up on one of the large pine- 
trees in the botanic garden, within a few feet of the nest of 
an orchard-oriole, which also contained young, hopeful that 
the charity or tenderness of the orioles would induce them 
to supply the cravings of the stranger. But charity with 
them, as with too many of the human race, began and ended 
at home. The poor orphan was altogether neglected, not- 
withstanding its plaintive cries ; and as it refused to be fed 
by me, I was about to return it back to the place Where I 
found it, when, towards the afternoon, a scarlet tanager, no 
doubt its own parent, was seen fluttering round the cage 
endeavouring to get in. Finding this impracticable, he flew 
off and soon returned with food in his bill, and continued 
to feed it till after sunset, taking up his lodgings in the 
higher branches of the same tree. In the morning, almost 
as soon as day broke, he was again seen most actively en- 
gaged in the same affectionate manner ; and, notwithstand- 
ing the insolence of th6 orioles, continued his benevolent 
ofitices the whole day, roosting at night as before. On the 
third or fourth day he appeared extremely solicitous for the 
liberation of his charge, using every expression of distressful 
anxiety, and every call and invitation that nature had put in' 
his power for him to come out. This wa6 too much for the 
feelings of my venerable friend ; he procured a ladder, and, 
mounting to the spot where the bird was suspended, opened 
fne cage, took out the prisoner, and restored him to liberty 
and to his parent, who, with notes of great exultation, ac-- 
companied his flight to the woods. The happiness of my 
good friend was scarcely less complete, and showed itself in 
his benevolent countenance ; and I could not refrain: saying" 
to myself — if such sweet sensations can be derived from a 
simple circumstance of this kind, how exquisite, how un- 
speakably rapturous, must the delight of those individtrals 
have been, who have rescued their fellow-beings from deaths- 
chains, and imprisonment, and restored them to the arms of 
their friends and relations ! Surely in such godlike acti<>ns? 



288 NATURAL HISTORY. 

virtue is its own most abundant reward !"* Nevertheless^ 
as practical ornithology can by no means flourish without 
powder and shot, Wilson continued to knock down as many 
birds as he required, — and they were many, — for the space 
of several succeeding years. Alas ! that the latter were 
so few. 

More allied to the starling tribe is a bird remarkable for 
the singularity of its habits, called the cowpen or cuckoo- 
bunting {Embcriza pecoris of Wilson), classed by Mr. 
Swainson in the genus Molothrus. It visits the fur-coun- 
tries in May, and, after ranging as far north as the sixtieth 
parallel, it departs in September, and collecting in large 
flocks during the ensuing month in Pennsylvania, it finally 
retires to winter-quarters in Mexico and the most southern 
parts of the United States. It feeds on grain, grass, and 
worms, and is frequently seen perched familiarly on the 
backs of cattle. But the most remarkable trait in the 
character of this species is its practice (like that of our 
own cuckoo) of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds, 
and abandoning its future offspring to the care of strangers. 
The yellow-throat and red-eyed fly-catcher are most fre- 
quently selected to perform the office of foster-parents. 

Passing over the rice-bird, the Baltimore oriole, the pur- 
ple grakle, and others of the Shirnidce, we shall here briefly 
notice the family of the crows. The raven {Corvus corax,) 
which occurs in all the four quarters of the globe, is abund- 
ant in the fur-countries ; and the carrion-crow ( C. corone) 
also occurs there, but appears to be of a less hardy nature, 
as it is seen in the interior in summer only, and does not 
seem to approach within 500 or 600 miles of Hudson's Bay. 
The magpie ( C. pica) is as common in the prairie lands of 
America as it is in Europe. Several beautiful jays likewise 
occur in North America. 

We come next to the woodpeckers, which are numerous 
and widely spread over the American continent, as might be 
expected in connexion with the vast forests with which so 
much of the country is still encumbered. The ivory-billed 

* American Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 230. 



BIRDS. 28» 

woodpecker (Picus principalis) is undoubtedly the most 
magnificent of the genus. While many of the smaller 
kinds seek their prey in the orchard or shrubbery, among 
rails, fences, or prostrate logs, the present species inhabit 
the most towering trees of the forest, " seeming particularly 
attached to those prodigious cypress swamps, whose crowded 
giant sons stretch their bare and blasted, or moss-hung 
arms, midway to the skies. In these almost inaccessible 
recesses, amid ruinous piles of impending timber, his 
trumpet-like notes and loud strokes resound through the 
solitary savage wilds, of which he seems the sole lord and 
master." The food of this species, Mr. Audubon informs 
us, consists chiefly of beetles, larvse, and large grubs. No 
sooner, however, are the grapes of the forest ripened, than 
they are eaten by the ivory-billed woodpecker with great 
avidity. " I have seen this bird," says the last-named ex- 
cellent observer, " hang by its claws to the vines, in the 
position so often assumed by a titmouse, and, reaching 
downwards, help itself to a bunch of grapes with much 
apparent pleasure."* Although we have introduced a no- 
tice of this fine species, we are not aware that it extends 
so far to the north as the countries with which we are at 
present engaged. It is, however, well known in many of 
the United States. A much more northern species is the 
three-toed woodpecker (P. tridactylus of Swainson), which 
exists in all the forests of spruce-fir that lie between Lake 
Superior and the Arctic Sea. It is the most common of the 
species that occur to the north of Great Slave Lake. 

The varieties of the feathered race are inexhaustible. 
Each tribe and family contains many familiar and well-re- 
membered species, on the history of which we could dilate 
with pleasure ; but we must of necessity leave even the 
names of many unrecorded. Two frail and fairy beings, 
however, seemingly of too delicate a fabric to withstand the 
rudeness of the northern blasts, now solicit our regard, and 
as they have flown far to obtain it, we must here insert a 
compendious history of the North American humming-birds. 
Meanwhile, let us borrow the words of the enthusiastic 
Audubon. They apply to the ruby-throated species {Tro- 

* (^ithological Biography, vol. i. p. 344. 
Bb 



290 NATURAL HISTORY. 

chilus coluhnsy Linn.). " No sooner has the returning sun. 
again introduced the vernal season^ and caused millions of 
plants to expand their leaves and blossoms to his genial 
beams, than the little humming-bird is seen advancing on 
fairy-wings, carefully visiting every opening flower-cup, and 
like a curious florist, removing from each the injurious in- 
sects that otherwise would, ere long, cause their beauteous 
petals to droop and decay. Poised in the air, it is observed 
peeping cautiously and with sparkling eye into their inner- 
most recesses, while the ethereal motions of its pinions, so 
rapid and so light, appear to fan and cool the flower without 
injuring its fragile texture, and produce a delightful mur- 
muring sound, well adapted for lulling the insects to repose. 
Then is the moment for the humming-bird to secure them. 
Its long delicate bill enters the cup of the flower, and the 
protruded double-tubed tongue, delicately sensible, and im- 
bued with a glutinous saliva, touches each insect in suc- 
cession, and draws it from its lurking-place to be instantly 
swallowed. All this is done in a moment, and the bird, as 
it leaves the flower, sips so small a portion of its liquid 
honey, that the theft, we may suppose, is looked upon with 
a grateful feeling by the flower, which is thus kindly relieved 
from the attacks of her destroyers. 

" The prairies, the orchards, and gardens, nay, the deep- 
est shades of the forest, are all visited in their turn, and 
everywhere the little bird meets with pleasure and with 
food. Its gorgeous throat in beauty and brilliancy baffles 
all competition. Now it glows with a fiery hue, and again 
it is changed to the deepest velvety black. The upper parts 
of its delicate body are of resplendent changing green, and 
it throws itself through the air with a swiftness and vivacity 
hardly conceivable. It moves from one flower to another 
like a gleam of light, upwards, downwards, to the rights 
and to the left. In this manner it searches the extreme 
northern portions of our country, following with great pre- 
caution the advances of the season, and retreats with 
equal care at the approach of autumn."* 

The nest of this species is formed with a delicacy propor- 
tioned to its tiny inmates. The external parts consist of 
a light-gray lichen found on the branches of trees or o» 

* Oraithological Biography, vol. 1. p. 248. 



BIRDS, 2^1 

decayed fence-rails, and so trimly arranged around the nest, 
as well as at some distance from the spot to which it is at- 
tached, as to appear like a portion of the stem. These little 
pieces of lichen are ^lued together, as some say, with the 
saliva of the bird. The next layer consists of a cottony 
substance, and the innermost of silky fibres obtained from 
various plants, but all extremely soft and delicate. In this 
sweet receptacle the female deposites a single pair of eggs, 
pure white, antl of an almost oval form. 

A Virginian gentleman kept two of these creatures in a 
cage for several months. He supplied them with a mixture 
of honey and water. On this they appeared to feed ; but 
as the sweet and viscous liquid brought many small ^ies 
about the cage, the humming-birds were seen to snap at 
and swallow the insects with great eagerness. Mr. C. W. 
Peale also succeeded in rearing two young ones from the 
nest. They used to fly about the room, and would fre- 
quently perch on Mrs. Peaie's shoulder. Wilson himself 
took a nest in the summer of 1803, the inhabitants of which 
were just about to fly ; indeed one of them flew out by the 
window that same evening, and, striking against a wall, 
was killed. The other refused food, and was scarcely alive 
next morning. A lady, however, undertook to nurse it, and 
dissolving a little sugar in her mouth, she thrust in the 
bird's bill, which immediately sucked with great avidity. 
It was kept for three months, and daily supplied with loaf- 
sugar dissolved in water. Fresh flowers were also scattered 
every morning around its food ; and in this way it appeared 
gay, active, and full of spirits, and hovered from flower to 
flower as if in its natural state. It never failed to express, 
both by a peculiar motion and a chirping voice, the greatest 
pleasure when its supply of flowers was introduced into the 
cage. It became the admiration of all beholders, and 
sanguine hopes were entertained that it might be pre- 
served throughout the winter ; but unfortunately it one day 
got at large, and flying about the room in a more exeited 
manner than usual, it injured itself in such a way as to die 
soon after.* The species to which these observations apply 

* Tn addition to the writings of Wilson and Audubon, consult, for a 
knowledge of the history and habits of humming birds, Mr. Bullock's 
" Six Months in Mexico," and M. Lesson's " Histoire des Oiseur 

Mouches." 



292 NATURAL HISTORY. 

ranges during the summer season as far to the north as the 
67th parallel. Dr. Richardson found it on the plains of the 
Saskatchawan, and Mr. Drummond discovered its nest near 
the sources of the Elk River. This was composed chiefly 
of the dov^fn of an anemone, bound together by a few stalks 
of moss and bits of lichen, and had an internal diameter of 
one inch. 

The other species to which we alluded above was first 
observed by our illustrious navigator Cook, on the barren 
shores of Nootka Sound. It is the ruff-necked humming- 
bird ( Trochilus collaris of Latham, and the Trochilus rufus 
of Gmelin). It is a superb species, and ranges to the 
southward at least as far as the table-land of Mexico, near 
Real del Monte; from which locality specimens are pre- 
served in the unrivalled collection of Mr. Loddiges. It 
was traced by Kotzebue along the Pacific shores as far as 
the sixty-first parallel. The migration of birds has in 
every age afforded a subject of pleasing speculation to the 
admirers of the never-ending wonders of the natural world ; 
but in no instance does it more freely excite our admiration 
than when manifested by creatures so frail, and fantastically 
attired in hues 

" Which make the rose's blush of beauty pale, 
And dim the rich geranium's scarlet blaze." 

Of the long-winged and most aerial of the feathered 
race, the swallow tribe, many beautiful species inhabit 
America. We shall here notice only the white-fronted or 
cliff-swallow {Hirundo lunifrons of Say), discovered near 
the Rocky Mountains by Major Long. It was seen in great 
numbers by Sir John Franklin's party in 1820, while travel- 
lino- from Cumberland House to Fort Enterprise. Its clus- 
tered nests are frequent on the fiices of the rocky cliffs of 
the Barren Grounds, and a number of them made their first 
appearance at Fort Chipewyan on the 25th of June, 1825, 
and immediately built their nests under the eaves of the 
dwelling-house, which are not more than six feet above a 
balcony that extended the whole length of the building, and 
was a constant promenade. " They had thus to graze the 
heads of the passengers on entering their nests, and were 
moreover exposed to the curiosity and depredations of the 
children, to whom they were novelties : yet they preferred 



BIRDS. 1298 

the dwelling-house to the more lofty eaves of the store- 
houses, and in the following season returned with aug- 
mented numbers to the same spot. Fort Chipewyan has 
existed for many years, and trading-posts, though far dis- 
tant from each other, have been established in the fur-coun- 
tries for a century and a half; yet this, as far as I could 
learn, is the first instance of this species of swallow placing 
itself under the protection of man within the widely-ex- 
tended lands north of the Great Lakes.* What cause 
could have thus suddenly called into action that confidence 
in the human race with which the Framer of the Universe 
has endowed this species, in common with others of the 
swallow tribe "?"! This species is very widely distributed. 
It was transmitted to Professor Jameson from India some 
years ago by the Marchioness of Hastings. 

Passing over the goat-suckers (genus CapriTnulgus)^ 
which are frequent and numerous in the northern regions 
of America, we may here record the name of the belted 
king-fisher (Alcedo alcyon, Linn.) as the sole representative 
in the fur-countries of a tribe very widely diffused over all 
the known regions of the earth. It is a bird of passage, 
and winters as far south as the West Indies, although it 
also occurs in Georgia and the Floridas during that season. 

A more numerous and much more important family of 
birds (in America) are the Tetraonida or grouse. Nearly 
a dozen species inhabit the fur-countries, and of these the 
largest and most remarkable is the pheasant-tailed grouse 
or cock of the plains {Tetrao urophasianus, Bon.). The 
flight of this bird, Mr. Douglas informs us, is slow and un- 
steady, and affords but little amusement to the sportsman. 
Its wings are small, and but feebly feathered in proportion 
to the size of the bird, which measures from thirty-two to 
thirty-four inches in length, and weighs from six to eight 
pounds. Though it may be said to represent the capercailzie 

• The late governor, De Witt Clinton, has given a very interestieg 
history of the closely-resembling species, H.fulva, which about sixteen 
yeais ago began to build its nests on the walls of houses in the Westero 
States, and has every succeeding summer been aavancing farther to tb© 
.eastward. Vide Ann. Lye, New- York, vol. i. p. 156. 

t Fasina Boreali-Ainericana, vol. ii. p. 331. 
Bb2 



294 NATURAL HISTORY. 

or wood-grouse ( T. urogallus) in the New World, it differ* 
in this respect, that it never perches. Its flesh is dark- 
coloured, and not particularly good in point of flavour.* 

We shall close our account of American land-birds, com- 
monly so called, by a reference to the passenger-pigeon 
(Columba migrcUoria).- It may be presumed to be suflS- 
ciently common in America, from a fact, or rather a calcu- 
lation, given by Alexander Wilson. He estimated a flock 
which continued to pass above him for the greater part of a 
day to have been a mile iu breadth and 240 miles in length, 
and to have contained (three birds being assigned to every 
square yard) at least two thousand two hundred and thirty 
millions, two hundred and seventy-two thousand pigeons !t 
Mr. Audubon confirms his predecessor's account by a nar- 
rative still more extraordinary,} and adds, that as every 
pigeon consumes fully half a pint of food (chiefly mast), 
the quantity necessary for supplying his flock must have 
amounted to eight millions seven hundred and twelve thou- 
sand bushels per day I — an expensive doocot. 

Of the order of waders (Grallafores) none winter in the 
fur-countries. They generally arrive about the end of 
April and beginning of May, and are driven southwards in 
autumn by the advance of winter, and its hardening influ- 
ence upon the moist grounds and swampy shores, from 
which these long-legged gentry draw their principal support. 
We shall rest satisfied by furnishing a Ust of their names 
in the note belovv.^ 

* For the history and description of the other American grouse, con- 
sult Mr. David Douglas's paper in the 16th volume of the Linn. Trans. ; 
Professor Jameson's edition of the American Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 314, 
and vol. iv. p. 189,325; the second volume of the Fauna Boreali-Ameri- 
cana, p. 342; and my own " lilu.strations of Zoology," vol. i. plates 26, 
27, 30, 31, and corresponding letter-press. 

t See vol. ii. p. 299. 

t See his interesting history of the passenger-pigeon in the first 
volume of the "Ornifhological Biography," p. 319-326. 

§ The saiiderling (Calidris arenaria, Illiger); American ringplover 
(Charadrius semipalmatus, Bonap.); kildeer-plover (Ch. vociferus, 
Linn.); golden-plover (CA. pluvialis, Linn.?); gray lapwing {YanellTis 
melanogaster, '&e.c\isi.)\ turnstone (Strepsilus interpres. 111.); whoop- 
ing^crane {Grtis Americana, Temm.) ; brown crane (G. Canadensis, 
Temm.); great heron (Ardea Ilerodias, Linn.); American bittern, 
{Ardca Icntisinosa, Mont.); American avoset {Recurvirostra Amerr 



BIRDS. 295 

Of the still more extensive order of Natatorcs^ or web- 
footed swimming-birds {Palmipedes), we shall present only 
a few brief notices. Birds of this order are fully more re- 
markable for the texture than the tints of their plumage, 
although several Kpecies of the duck tribe are likewise dis- 
tinguished by considerable brilliancy of colour. Destined 
to inhabit the seashore, and the banks of lakes and rivers, 
they are much exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, 
and their feathers are providentially rendered very close and 
compact, and abundantly imbued with an oily secretion, 
through which they become impermeable by moisture. 
This beautiful provision, as I have elsewhere observed,* is 
more indispensable to the economy of the Palmipedes than 
to any other order, as many of them are strictly oceanic, be- 
ing sometimes found 500 leagues from land, and conse- 
quently having no other place of repose, either by night or 
by day, than the surface of the '* injurious sea." In adoi- 
tion to an abundant plumage, the truly aquatic kinds, such 
as ducks and divers, are furnished with a close, and, in some 
instances, very valuable down, which preserves them from 
the effects of cold and moisture, and is afterward used in 
the formation of their nests on the arrival of the genial 
season. With the exception of ducks and mergansers, no 
very marked distinction prevails between the plumage of the 

cava, Linn.); long-billed curlew (Numenius longirostris, Wils.); 
Hudsonian curlew (N. Hudsonicus, Lath.); Esquimaux curlew (JV. 
borealis. Lath.); Douglas' san<lpiiier {Tringa Douglasii, Swains.), a 
new species not uncommon in the fur countries as high as the sixtietb 
parallel; slendershanks sandpiper (T. himantopus, Bonap.?); semi- 
palmated sandpiper (T. semipahnata, Wils.); purple sandpiper (7'. 
maritima, Brrmn.); dunlin (T. alpina, Penn.); Schintz's sandpiper (T. 
Schinzii, Brelim.); pigrny sandpiper (T. minuta, Leisler); diminutive 
sandpiper (T. pusilla, VVils.); knot (T. cinerea, Linn.); semipalmated 
tatler (Totanus semipalmatns, Temm.) ; tell-tale (T. vociferus, Sabine) ; 
yellow-shanks tatler {T. Jlavipes^WeiWoV); red-shank or gambet (T. 
calidris, Bechst.); Banram's tatler (T. Bar tramius, Temm.); white- 
tailed tatler (T. ochroptis, Temm.); green-rump tatler (T. chlnropygius, 
Vieill.); great-marbled godwif (Limosafedoa, Vieill.) ; Hud.sonian god- 
wit (L. Hvdsonica, Swains.); ]\ew-York godwit {Srnlopax Novobo- 
racensis, Wils.); Drummond's snipe (Sc. Dnwimondii, Swains.); 
Wilson's snipe (Sc. Wilsojiii, Temm.); yellow-breasted rail (Rallus 
Novoboracensis, Bonap.); Carolina rail {R. Carolinus, Bonap.); Ameri« 
can coot (Fulica Americana, Gmel.) ; Wilson's phalarope {Ph. Wilsonii, 
Sab.): hyperborean phalarope (Pft. hyperborexis. Lath.); flat-billed pha- 
larope (Ph.fulicarius, Bonap.). 
* Illustrations of Zoology, \ol. {., introductory letter-press to plate 3, 



296 NATURAL HISTORY. 

sexes. The young differ considerably from the adults, and 
seldom attain the perfect plumage till the lapse of one or 
two seasons. 

North America produces several grebes (genus Podiceps) 
and sea-swallows {Sterna). About a dozen different kinds 
of gull {Larus) inhabit both the barren shores and inland 
swamps of the fur-countries. A beautiful species called 
the fork-tailed gull (Larus Sahinii) is here represented. 

This bird was discovered by Captain Edward Sabine on 
a group of three low rocky islands, about twenty miles 
from the mainland, off the west coast of Greenland. 
" They flew with impetuosity towards persons approaching 
their nests and young ; and when one bird of a pair was 
killed, its mate, though separately fired at, continued on 
wing close to the spot where it lay."* The fork-tailed or 
Sabine gull is one of the most elegant of the genus. Its 
colours, though sufficiently contrasted for variety and liveli- 
ness of effect, are finely harmonized. The colour of the 
head assumes a considerable variety of appearances, accord- 
ing to |he direction and degree of light in which it is 
examined ; — a tinge of black, brown, blue, or purple, 
seeming alternately suffused over the deep lead colour 
which forms the prevailing tone by which the parts are 
usually characterized. There appears to be no difference 
in the plumage of the sexes, but the female is rather less 
in size. A solitary example of this species was met in 
Prince Regent's Inlet during Sir Edward Parry's first 
voyage, and in the course of the second voyage many 
were obtained on Melville Peninsula. They arrive in high 
northern latitudes in June, and take their departure south- 
wards as early as the month of August. 

As an example of the northern ducks, we shall confine 
ourselves to the Rocky Mountain golden-eye ( CZan^wZa Bar- 
Toviy Rich, and Swains.), a species distinguished from our 
common golden-eye by the head and upper portion of the 
neck being of a pansy-purple colour, with a large crescent- 
shaped spot of white before each eye. The white speculum 
of the wing is separated from a band of the same colour on 
the coverts by a black stnpe. It is dedicated to Mr. Barrow 
4>f the Admiralty, our chief promoter of those important 

* Linn. Trans, vol. xU.p. 5S2. 



*'»•■! ;; ^ 




^t^'''li.'' (> 



BIRDS. 299 

geographical discoveries, from the successful conduct of 
which such essential benefits have resulted to zoological 
science. 

It appears that the swan lately discovered, or at least 
identified as new to the records of British ornithology, and 
described by Mr. Yarrell* under the name of Bewick's swan 
{Cygnus Bewickii), is an inhabitant of the seacoast within 
the Arctic circle of America. It is much later in its north- 
ern migratory movements than its congener the trumpeter- 
swan (C. buccinator). According to Lewis and Clarke, it 
winters near the mouth of the Columbia. Its nest is de- 
scribed by Captain Lyon (than whom few describe in a more 
agreeable manner) as built in a peat-moss, and being 
nearly six feet long, four and three-quarters wide, two 
feet high exteriorly, and with a cavity in the inside of a 
foot and a half in diameter. The eggs were brownish- 
white, clouded with a darker tint. A more common species 
of swan in the interior of the fur-countries is the trumpeter 
above named. The great bulk of the skins imported by 
the Hudson's Bay Company pertain to this species. 

The white pelican {Pel. onocrotalus) is frequent in the 
fur-countries as high as the sixty-first parallel. It haunts 
eddies beneath cascades, and destroys a great quantity of 
carp and other fish. 

The great northern diver {Colymbus glacialis) is met 
with in considerable numbers in all the lakes of the interior, 
though seldom observed either in Hudson's Bay or along 
the shores of the Arctic Sea. It flies heavily, but swims 
with great swiftness. The black-throated species (C Arc- 
ticus)y on the other hand, though common on the coasts of 
Hudson's Bay, more rarely makes its way into the interior. 
Most of the guillemot tribe {Uria troile^ Brunnichii, grylUy 
and alle) frequent the Arctic seas of America. 

We shall here close our account of the feathered races 
of these northern regions. 

* Lina. Traus. vol. xvL p. 445i. 



300 NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Some Account of the Fishes and other Zoological Productions 
of the Northern Regions of America. 

Stnrgeon— Salmon— Trout— Char— Capelan— White Fish— Blue Fish— 
Herring— Pike— Burbot — Pert-h— Bull-head— Northern Insects — Thenr 
Natural Preservation from Cold — More Northern Extension of Tropical 
Forms in America than in Europe— Bees— Extension Westwards of 
the Honey-bee — Diplera— Melville Island Spider— Butterflies. 

The fishes of the northern regions are of great import- 
ance as articles of food in- countries where a nutritious 
diet is by no means easy to obtain ; and where, as we have 
seen in the course of our historical disquisition, tripe de 
roche, burnt bones, and fur-jackets are too frequently the 
sorry substitutes for better fare. We shall mention a few 
of the characteristic kinds. 

A species of sturgeon called sterlet (Accipenser Ruthe- 
nus) abounds in the Saskatchawan. The fishery at Cumber- 
land House is most productive during the spring and summer. 
This is a much smaller species than the A. huso. An in- 
dividual weighing 60 pounds is considered large. 

The Coppermine River salmon (Salmo Hcrnii) is shaped 
like a common salmon, with a somewhat larger head. Its 
size is inferior to that of the British salmon. It is cap- 
tured in great quantities in the leap at Bloody Fall, on the 
Coppermine, in the months of July and August. Many 
varieties of trout also occur in the lakes and rivers of the 
northern parts of America ; but as the kinds which fre- 
quent our own otherwise well known streams are still 
vaguely indicated fc'y naturalists, the reader need not wonder 
that we have little definite information to communicate 
regarding those of such far distant lands. The Indians do 
not appear to designate their trouts by specific appellations, 
but use a general term ; the Crees call them nammcecoosy 
the Chipewyans thlooeesinnch, and the Esquimaux cBrkallook. 
The vividness of their spots and markings seems to vary 
with the season ; and the colour and consequent condition 



FISHES. 301 

of the flesh are likewise liable to change. They attain at 
times to an enormous size ; Dr. Richardson frequently ob- 
served trouts weighing 40 pounds. In Manito or God's 
Lake, they are reported to attain the size of 90 pounds. A 
species nearly allied to the char {.S. alpinus), but with the 
tail more forked, and a blunter snout, was taken in a lake 
in Melville Island. 

The capelan or lodde ( S. Grcenlandicus) was observed in 
large shoals along the shallow shores of Bathurst's Inlet. 
The white fish (Coregonus albvs) is named thlooaek by the 
Copper Indians, and tittamcg by the traders. It varies in 
weight from three to eight pounds, and sometimes attains 
even a much greater size. It abounds in every lake and river 
of the American arctic regions, and forms a most delicious 
food, being eaten without satiety as almost the sole article 
of diet at some of the trading-posts for a series of years. 
Back's grayling (C. signifer) is the poisson bleu of the fur- 
dealers. This beautiful fish prefers the strong rapids, and 
rises eagerly at the artificial fly. It was found during the 
first expedition only in the clear rivers to the northward of 
Great Slave Lake, and measures about 16 inches exclu- 
sive of the caudal fin. The common herring (Chipea Ha- 
rcngus) was caught in Bathurst Inlet early in the month of 
August ; and pike {Esox lacius 1) are common in all the 
lakes. The burbot {Gadus lota) is likewise a frequent fish 
in every lake and river. It preys indiscriminately on what- 
ever other species it is able to swallow, and in the spring its 
stomach is generally crammed witb^cray-fish to such a degree 
as to distort the shape of its own body.* It is little prized as 
food. There is a kind of perch, sufficiently common about 
Cumberland House, which resembles our common perch in 
shape, but at the same time dififers in several respects from 
the European species. Its length to the caudal fin is about 
19 inches. A peculiar cottus {C.polaris, Sabine), similar 
in its habits to C gohia, was found to occur abundantly on 
the shores of North Georgia in pools of water left by the 
ebbing of the tide. The largest were not more than two 
inches long.f The six-horned bull-head (C. hexacornis)y 
is also frequent in the Arctic seas.J 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 724. 
t Supplement to the Appendix to Parry's First Voyage, p. 213. 
i For some notices of shells and other invertebrate animals of the 
Cc 



302 NATURAL HISTORY. 

We have little to say of the insects of the northern re- 
gions. Cold is in general adverse to the production and 
increase of insect life, and even temperate climates are 
much less productive than tropical and equatorial regions, 
in relation to those tiny tribes. It is probable, however, 
that the distribution of many northern species is still un- 
known. It was formerly supposed that in Iceland there 
were none, and that even in Norway there were very few, 
and their absence from those countries was attributed to ex- 
cess of cold. Horrebow contradicted this opinion in regard 
to Iceland, although Dr. Hooker, in his interesting " Recol- 
lections" of a tour in that island, states that he met with 
few,* yet Olafsen and Provalsen, during their residence 
there, collected 200 different species in one small valley. f 

Otho Fabricius resided six years in Greenland, and col- 
lected only 63 species of the insect class properly so called.t 
In the still higher latitude of Winter Harbour, where Sir 
Edward Parry sojourned, only six species of insects were 
collected from the beginning of the month of September 
till the August following. In Greenland, according to Mr. 
Kirby, every order of insect has its representatives, except 
Orthoptera and Hemiptera ; but in Melville Island, besides 
these deficiencies, neither coleopterous nor neuropterous 
species were observed ; and even the mosquito, that shrill 
tyrant of the Lapland plains, appears to have ceased from 
troubling along those hyperborean shores. It must, how- 
ever, be borne in mind, that insects can escape the extremes 
of cold, not only, as Mr. Macleay observes, by passing cer- 
tain periods in the pupa or torpid state, but also by being 
while in that state usually buried in the earth, where they 
are but slightly sensible even of the most extreme rigour 
of winter. " What they chiefly require is the presence of 
heat during some period of their existence ; and the greater, 
within certain limits, is the heat, the more active will be 
their vital principle. On the American continent the ex- 
tremes of heat and cold in the course of the year are, as is 
well known, incomparably greater than in places of the 

Arctic Regions, consult the Supplement above named. See also a List 
of Zoophytes by Dr. Fleming, in the Appendix to Captain Parry's 
Second Voyage to the Arctic Regions. 

* First edition, p. 272. t Voyage en Islande. t, L 

t Fauna Grcenlandica. 



INSECTS. 303 

same latitude in Europe. We may, therefore, readily 
conceive how families of insects will inhabit a wider range 
of latitude in the former country than in the latter. We 
see also how insects may swarm in the very coldest climates, 
such as Lapland and Spitzbergen, where the short summer 
can boast of extraordinary rises in the thermometer ; be- 
cause the energy of the vital principle in such animals is, 
within certain limits, proportionate to the degree of warmth 
to which they may be subjected, and escapes in a manner 
the severe action of cold."* It is on the above principles 
also that Mr. Macleay accounts for what certainly at first 
seems an extraordinary circumstance in the geography of 
insects ; namely, that their tropical structure extends much 
farther north in America than in Europe, — that is, in a 
manner directly the reverse of that which has been noted 
by botanists to occur in the vegetable kingdom. When we 
examine Copris carnifex, Cetonia nitida, Rutela G-punclatUf 
and other insects from the neighbourhood of New-York, 
and compare them with species of the same families from 
Brazil, we shall find their diflference of structure infinitely 
less than that which would result from a comparison of the 
entomological productions of the environs of Madrid with 
those of the banks of the Congo. 

Mr. Macleay admits, that although in his opinion the in- 
sect tribes suffer less in cold climates than plants, it does 
not therefore follow that the prevalence of cold has no effect 
in relation to the destruction or prevention of insect life. 
In truth, the diminution of the number of species becomes 
very conspicuous as we advance towards the poles. But 
this the learned author of the HorcB Entomologicce supposes 
to be owing rather to the short continuance of the summer 
warmth, than to the lowness of its existing degree. In ac- 
cordance with this view we certainly find that many insects, 
such as gnats, mosquitoes, &c. which pass their larva state 
in water, — thus avoiding the extremest cold, and whose ex- 
istence in the perfect state being naturally ephemeral, must, 
therefore, suffer little from the shortness of summer, — are 
nowhere more troublesome than among the moors and 
marshes of the north. On the other hand, the number of 
coleopterous species, which, being naturally longe*" lived, 

* Horae Entomologicae, part i. p. 45. 



304 NATURAL HISTORY. 

require a greater continuance of warmth, is sensibly dimin- 
ished amid those dreary wastes.* 

Several specimens of a species of caterpillar were found 
in Melville Island. They occurred in the vicinity of Sediz 
Arctica and Saxifraga oppositifolia, and a new moth {Bombyx 
Salini, K.) was found in a swampy part of the island. The 
honey-bee {Apis mellifica) is supposed to be not an indige- 
nous but an imported species in America. Our land expe- 
ditions did not observe its occurrence to the north of Canada. 
The Americans have now settled the Missouri, as far as 
the 95th meridian, and it is probable that the New-England 
men, in their journeys westward, carried hives along with 
them. According to Mr. Warden, the honey-bee was not 
found to the westward of the Mississippi prior to the year 
1797; but it is now well known, and has been so for a 
considerable time, as high up the Missouri as the Maha 
nation ; having proceeded westward 600 miles in fourteen 
years.t Such a distance seems great for these tiny crea- 
tures to advance by the ordinary process of swarming, even 
supposing that the flight of the new colonies was invariably 
in a western direction. It is at the rate of 43 miles a-year ; 
but they have, perhaps, been smitten by the Yankee pas- 
sion of settling beyond the clearings.t A wild bee {Apis 
alpina, Fah. Bombus Arcticusy K.) of a black colour, with the 
base and apex of the thorax and the anterior half of the ab- 
domen pale yellow, is very common within the Arctic Cir- 
cle."^ " Scarcely any genus of the insect creation has so 
large a range as this of Bombus. It is found in the Old 
World and in the New, — and from the limits of phsenoga- 
mous vegetation to the equator ; but its metropolis appears 
to be within the temperate zone. The range of the species 
in question seems limited by the Arctic Circle, and to go 
from Greenland only westward, for it does not appear to 

* Horae Entomologicae, part i. p. 46. 

T Statistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States 
of America, vol. iii. p. 139. 

X Dr. Richardson lately informed me, that in the course of his north- 
ern journey, he saw some bees in very high latitudes resembling our 
common bumblebee, but that he did not at the time ascertain the exact 
species, and the circumstances under which he was then placed unfor- 
tunately prevented his preserving specimens of the softer insects. 

^ The insect above alluded to is a distinct species from the Apis 
alpina of Linn., which is black, with the upper side of the abdomen, 
eli but the base, covered with ferruginous hair. 



INSECTS. 305 

have been seen in Lapland or Iceland,* or other eastern 
parts of that circle."! 

Of the dipterous tribes we shall here mention only the 
Chironomus polaris of Kirby. The body is of a deep black, 
somewhat hairy. The antennse are plumose. The wings 
are rather shorter than the body, of a milky hue, with pris- 
matic reflections, and the marginal nervures black. The 
abdomen is slender and hairy. This species seems allied 
to the Tipulu stercoraria of De Geer, but exceeds it by 
twice the size. Along with Ctenophora Parrii it may be 
said to replace the Culices or gnats which prove so trouble- 
some to navigators and travellers up to a certain high lati- 
tude. The species of the genus Chironomus, more espe- 
cially, are often seen in our own country dancing in the 
sunbeams even during the depth of winter, when Culex is 
benumbed ; and it was therefore to be expected, a priori, 
that the former would occupy a higher range, and approach 
nearer the pole than the latter. On the last day of Cap- 
tain Parry's attempt to reach the North Pole over the ice, a 
species of Aphis was found in lat. 82° 26' 44", about 100 
miles from the nearest known land. J This may be con- 
sidered as the extreme northern boundary of insect life. 

A small spider was seen in great abundance in Melville 
Island, running on the ground, as well as on various plants, 
and leaping when alarmed. Mr. Kirby had an opportunity 
of examining only a single specimen, which was so defec- 
tive from injury that he could not name with certainty the 
genus to which it belonged ; but from its leaping propen- 
sities it was inferred to belong to Salticus of Latreille. 
To whatever genus it pertains, the specific name of Mel 
villensis is now bestowed upon it. 

Mr. Scoresby brought a few insects from the east coast 
of West Greenland. Among these were two butterflies, 
Papilio palceno, Linn. {Faun. suec. 1041), znd Papilio dia, 
Linn. (Fab. Mant. ins. ii. p. 6], n. 581). Both of these 
were enumerated for the first time as productions of Green- 
land in the account of his voyage ; for the only butterfly 

* Hooker's Recollections of Iceland, 1st edition, p. 34. 
t Supplement to the Appendix to Captain Parry's First Voyage, 
p. 217. 
J Narrative of an Attempt to reach the North Pole in Boats, 
C c2 



306 NATURAL HISTORY. 

met with on either coast by Fabricius was the Papilio Tullia 
of Muller.* 

The entomology of the northern portions of the mainland 
of America is as yet known only through a few vague and 
superficial notices, from which we can deduce no positive re- 
sults, and with which we therefore deem it unnecessary to 
trouble the reader. We expect ere long a valuable contri- 
bution on the subject from the skilful pen of Mr. Kirby.f 



CHAPTER IX. 

Characteristic Features in the Botany of the Northern Regions 
of America. 

Mr. Brown's Observations on the relative Proportions of the two great 
Divisions of Phaenogamous Plants — Beautifttl small Willow from East 
Greenland— Notices of the more remarkable Species collected by Dr. 
Richardson — Galium Tinctorium— Cornus Alba — Phlox Hoodii — Vi- 
burnum Edule— Azalea Nudicaulis— Lilium Philadelphicum— Epilo- 
bium Angustifolium— Ledum latifolium— L. Palustre— Prunus Virgi- 
niana— Pyrus Ovalis— Crepis Nana— Cineraria Congesta— Pinus Nigra 
— P. Alba— P. Banksiana — P. Microcarpa — L. Lambertiana — Empe- 
trum Nigrum— Myrica Gale— Populus Trepida— Populus Balsamifera 
— Juniperus Prostrata- Splachnum Mnioides— Dicranum Elongatum 
— Gyrophora proboscidea— Hyperborea Pennsylvanica, Mecklenbergii, 
vellea— Cetraria Richardsonii— Fucus Ceranoides— Difficulties in the 
Determination of Arctic Species— Plants recently introduced to the 
British Gardens— Lathyrus Decaphyllus— Eutoca Franklinii — Lupinus 
Littoralis— Clarkia Puchella— Gerardia Capitata— New Dodecatheon 
— Andromeda Tetragona — Menziesia Empetrifolia — Azalea Lapponica 
— Dryas Drummondia. 

Although, as a subject of scientific and philosophical in- 
vestigation, botany yields in interest to none of the other 
branches of natural history, and although a great poet and 
profound observer of nature has asserted that 

" To him the meanest flower that blows can give 
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears," 



* Scoresby's Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-Fishery, p. 424. 

t The third volume of Dr. Richardson's Fauna Boreali-Americanay 
now in preparation, will contain a few notices of Serpents, a descrip 
tion of the Fishes, an account of the Insects (by Mr. Kirby), and a list 
of Testacea. 



PLANTS. 307 

yet, owing to the extension which we have assigned to the 
zoological department, our space we fear will scarcely suffice 
for more than a cursory sketch, even with the total exclusion 
of all lachrymose affection. Several of our best botanists 
have, of late years, devoted a portion of their attention to the 
floraof the Northern Regions of America; but the subject 
has as yet made little progress beyond the indispensable pre- 
liminary of correct, though probably not yet completed, 
catalogues of certain districts. From these it is scarcely 
possible at present to select any such general features as 
would interest the majority of our readers ; but we shall in 
the mean while indicate the sources from which those who 
incline to investigate this branch of science may derive the 
most ample and accurate information. 

A list of plants, collected in Melville Island by the officers 
of the first Polar voyage, has been published by Mr. Brown, 
with characters and descriptions of the new species.* This 
account was made up from the herbaria of Captain Sabine, 
Mr. Edwards, Mr. James Ross, Captain Parry, Mr. Fisher, 
and Mr. Beverley, whose names are here given in the order 
of the extent of their collections. Great difficulty was ex- 
perienced by Mr. Brown in determining many of the species, 
either from their extremely variable character or the incom- 
plete condition of the specimens, and occasionally also from 
the want of authentic individuals of an identical or analogous 
nature from other countries, with which the recent acqui- 
sitions might be compared. The plan originally followed 
by the great Scotch botanist in the preparation of his list 
was more extensive than that finally executed. It included 
remarks on the state and relative proportions of the primary 
divisions and natural orders to which these northern plants 
pertained — a comparison of that hyperborean vegetation 
with the productions of nearly similar climates — and obser- 
vations on the range of such species as were ascertained to 
be common to Melville Island and other parts of the world. 
Towards the completion of that plan he had made consider- 
able progress ; but he found eventually that to have satis- 
factorily developed some of the subjects just named, would 
not only have required more time than he had then in his 

♦ Supplement to the Appendix to Captain Parry's First Voyage, 
London, 1834. 



308 NATURAL HISTORY. 

power to bestow, but also a more ample stock of materials 
than was at that period within his reach. If then so skilful 
an observer was unable to exhibit any general views on the 
subject, we hold ourselves to stand excused for their absence 
from this department of our present publication. In the list 
referred to the reader will find descriptions of several new or 
imperfectly-known genera and species, with admirable illus- 
trative engravings from the unrivalled pencil of Mr. Bauer. 
In Mr. Brown's earliest observations on the interesting 
subject of the relative proportions of the two primary divi- 
sions of phaenogamous plants, he had arrived at the conclu- 
sion, that from 45° as far as 60**, or perhaps 65° of north 
latitude, the proportion of dicotyledonous to monocotyledo- 
nous plants gradually diminished.* From a subsequent 
consideration, however, of the list of Greenland plants given 
by Professor Geisecke,t as well as from what he had been 
able elsewhere to collect, regarding the vegetation of alpine 
regions, he had supposed it not improbable that in still 
higher latitudes, and at corresponding heights above the 
level of the sea, the relative numbers of these two divisions 
were again inverted ;t — in the list of Greenland plants just 
referred to, dicotyledones being to monocotyledones as four 
to one, or in nearly the equinoctial ratio ; and in the vege- 
tation of Spitzbergen, as far as it could be judged of from 
the materials hitherto collected, the proportion of dicotyle- 
dones appearing to be still further increased. This inver- 
sion in the cases now mentioned was found to depend at 
least as much on the reduction of the proportion of grami- 
neae, as on the increase of certain dicotyledonous families, 
especially saxifrageae and cruciferae. " The flora of Mel- 
ville Island, however, which, as far as relates to the two pri- 
mary divisions of phaenogamous plaints, is probably as much 
to be depended on as any local catalogue hitherto published, 
leads to very different conclusions — dicotyledones being in 
the present list to monocotyledones as five to two, or in as 
low a ratio as has been anywhere yet observed ; while 
the proportion of grasses, instead of being reduced, is nearly 
double what has been found in any other part of the world 

* Flinders' Voyage, ii. p. 538. 

t Article Greenland, in Brewster's Encyclopaedia. 

t Tuckey'8 Congo, p. 423 



PLANTS. 309 

(see Humboldt in Diet, des Sciences Nat. torn. 18, table at 
p. 416), — this family forming one-fiflh of the whole phaeno- 
gamous vegetation."* 

Prior to the publication of the list, from the prefatory 
remarks to which the preceding is an extract, a short cata- 
logue of plants collected on the east coast of Greenland 
was published by Mr. Scoresby, with some remarks by Dr. 
Hooker.! The female catkins of a willow, allied to Salix 
arenaria of Smith, are described as extremely beautiful, 
owing to the fine contrast between their almost black scales 
and the pure silky whiteness of their germens. This was 
the only arborous plant met with by Mr. Scoresby. Its 
mode of growth was singular ; for although it expanded to 
the extent of several feet, it so accommodated itself to the 
nature of that chilly climate, or was so acted upon by its 
ungenial influence, that it only spread laterally, and was 
never observed to rise higher than two or three inches from 
the ground, t 

In the same year with the preceding, the narrative of 
Sir John Franklin's first journey, already so often referred 
to, made its appearance. The appendix to that volume 
(No. vii. p. 729) contains a list of North American plants 
by Dr. Richardson, which, however, is not given as con- 
taining any thing like a full catalogue of the flora of the 
district through which the expedition travelled. During 
their summer journeys only a small portion of time could 
be allotted to botanical researches, and the constant and 
more important duties of the officers prevented their aiding 
the doctor at all times in the collection of specimens as 
sedulously as they inclined to do. Under unavoidable cir- 
cumstances of a very harassing nature, a large proportion 
of plants may well be supposed to have escaped their notice ; 
and the disastrous incidents attending their homeward 
journey across the Barren Grounds, from the shores of 
the Arctic Sea, forced them to leave behind the entire col- 

* Supplement of the Appendix to Captain Parry's First Voyage, 
p. 262. 

t Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery, Appendix, No 
ii. p. 4J0. 

} In connexion with the last-named work the reader may also consult 
a Catalogue of Plants collected by William Jameson, Esq., surgeon, on 
the west coast of Greenland, drawn up by Dr. Greville, and published 
in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. iii. p. 426. 



310 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



lections formed during the summer of 1821, with the excep- 
tion of a few specimens collected on the banks of the Cop- 
permine River, and which had previously been intrusted 
to Mr. Wentzel's care. Professor Schwaegrichen, when 
in London, named the musci, and Dr. Hooker undertook 
the examination of the lichenes and fungi. Nothing more 
need be said to stamp a high value on those portions of 
the catalogue. 

This list contains (besides a few specimens described in 
the addenda by Mr. Brown) above 660 species. These are 
referable to various classes in the following numerical pro- 
portions : — 

Amount of species. 

Monandria 3 

Diandria 5 

Triandria 31 

Tetrandria 9 

Pentandria 51 

Hexaiidria 25 

Heptandria 1 

Octandria 11 

Decandria . . . -• 38 

Dodecandria 1 

Icosandria 26 

Polyandria 24 

Dydynamia 15 

Tetradynamia 23 

We shall briefly notice a few species, remarkable for their 
economic or other uses. The juice of the Galium tinctorium 
is used indiscriminately with that of G. boreale, by the 
women of the Cree nation, for the purpose of dying their 
porcupine quills. The lead-coloured fruit of Gornus alba 
are called bear-berries (musqua-meena) by the Crees, be- 
cause the bear is known to feed and fatten on them. A 
new species of phlox was discovered by the expedition, and 
named Phlox Hoodii, " as a small tribute," Dr. Richardson 
informs us, " to the memory of my lamented friend and 
companion, whose genius, had his life been spared, would 
have raised him to a conspicuous station in his profession, 
and rendered him an ornament to any science to which he 
might have chosen to direct his attention." This beautiful 
plant is a striking ornament to the plains in the neighbour- 
hood of Carlton House, where it forms large patches, con- 
spicuous from a distance. The red berries of the Viburnum 



Amount of species. 

Monodelphia 1 

Diadelphia 23 

Syngenesia 52 

Gynandria 8 

Monfflcia 39 

Diaecia 24 

Cryptogamia, 

Fihces 19 

Musci 73 

Hepaticse 16 

Lichenes 121 

Fungi 19 

AlgtK 5 



PLANTS. 311 

eduhy named winter-berries by the Crees, were obsen'ed to 
be highly ornamental to the woods. The bruised bark of 
the root of Azalea nudicatdis is applied by the Indians to 
recent wounds. The Liliiim Philadelphicum is called 
mouse-root by the Crees, because the common mouse of 
their country (a species of campagnol) is known to feed 
upon its scaly bulbs. The Canadian voyagers use the 
young shoots of Epilohium angustifolmm as a pot-herb, un- 
der the name Uherbe fret. The Ledum latifoliitm, some- 
times used as tea, is named kawkee-kee-pucquaw (ever- 
green, or always leaves), and also maskaeg or medicine, be- 
cause the natives think that the white residents drink its 
infusion as a medicine. The Ledum palustre, according to 
Dr. Richardson, forms a better substitute for tea than the 
plant just named. 

The Prunus Virginiana grows to be a handsome small 
tree, rising on the sandy plains of the Saskatchawan to the 
height of twenty feet, and extending as far north as Great 
Slave Lake, where, however, it attains the height of only 
five feet. Its fruit, known under the name of choke-cherry, 
is not very edible in the recent state, but forms a desirable 
addition to pemmican when dried and bruised. The Pyrus 
ovalis of Pursh is a common plant as far north as lat. 62°, 
and abounds in the plains of the Saskatchawan. Its wood 
is greatly esteemed by the Crees, for the formation of ar- 
rows and pipe-stems ; it is hence called iois de fleche by the 
Canadian voyagers. Its berries, about the size of a pea, 
are the finest fruit in the country, and are used by the 
Crees under the name of Messasscootoomrneena, both fresh 
and dried. They make excellent puddings. 

Among the Syngenesious plants we shall signalize only 
two examples. The Crepis nana^ a singular species, ap- 
pears to have been noticed by the land-expedition only on 
the banks of the Coppermine River. The polar voyagers 
collected it in Repulse Bay, Five Hawser Bay, and Lyon 
Inlet. 

The Cineraria congesta, described by Mr. Brown,* varies 
from three to seven inches in height. The leaves are some- 
times merely undulated, at other times furnished with long, 
spreading, sharp, unequal, tooth-like processes. Generally 

* Appendix to Parry's First Voyage, p. 279. 



812 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the flowers are collected into a remarkably compact head,' 
but in two specimens examined by Dr. Hooker,* several of 
the flower-stalks spring singly from the axils of the leaves 
up the whole length of the stem ; in which case they are 
mostly single-flowered, truncated, and leafy ; but always 
clothed, in common with the involucre, by a beautiful long 
and dense silky wool, by which character this species ap- 
pears to be principally distinguished from C. palustris. 
Specimens of this plant were gathered by Dr. Richardson 
in Bathurst Inlet, on the shore of the Arctic Sea, on the 
25th of July. According to Mr. Edwards, the individuals 
in Captain Parry's collection, which have elongated flower- 
stalks, were drawn out by having been rnade to grow on 
board ship ; at least he has seen such treatment produce 
precisely that effect ; and he adds that in its native place of 
grov^rth he never observed the plant othei'wise than remark- 
ably dense and crowded in its inflorescence. 

The black American spruce (Pinus nigra, Lamb.) is 
found in swampy situations as far north as lat. 65^, where it 
terminates along with the Betula papyracea. The white 
American spruce {P. alba, Lamb.) is mentioned by Dr. 
Richardson as the most northern tree which came under his 
observation. " On the Coppermine River, within twenty 
miles of the Arctic Sea, it attains the height of twenty feet 
or more. Its timber is in common use throughout the coun- 
try, and its slender roots, denominated Watapeh, are indis- 
pensable to canoe-makers for sewing the slips of birch-bark 
together. The resin which it exudes is used for paying 
over the seams of the canoes ; and canoes for temporary 
purposes are frequently formed of its own bark. It is the 
only tree that the Esquimaux of the Arctic Sea have access 
to while growing, and they contrive to make pretty strong 
bows by joining pieces of its wood together."! The Scrub 
or gray pine {Pinus Banksiana, Lamb.), in dry sandy soils, 
prevails to the exclusion of all others. It is a handsome 
tree with long, spreading, flexible branches, generally fur- 
nished with whorled curved cones of many years' growth. 
It attains the height of forty feet and upwards in favourable 
situations ; but the diameter of its trunk is greater in prO' 

* Appendix to Parry 'f^ First Voyage, p. 397. 
t Appendix to FraBklio'e First Journey, p. 752. 



PLANTS. 313 

portion to its height than that of the other pines of the 
country. It exudes less resin than P. alba. The Canada 
porcupine feeds upon its bark ; and its wood, from its light- 
ness and the straightness and toughness of its fibres, is 
highly prized as canoe timbers. It was observed on the 
route of the overland expedition as far north as lat. 64° ; 
but on the sandy banks of the Mackenzie it is said to attain 
to a still higher latitude.* The American larch (P. micro- 
carpa, Lamb.) was observed in swampy situations from York 
Factory to Point Lake, in lat. 65°. It was, however, of 
dwarfish growth in the last-named locality, seldom exceed- 
ing the height of six or eight feet. 

One of the most magnificent of the newly-discovered 
forest-trees of North America is Lambert's pine {Pinus 
Lambertianaj Douglas). Its principal localities are probably 
to the south of the districts with which we are here more 
especially interested ; but as its northern boundaries are 
not yet known, and as it forms in itself so fine a feature in 
this department of botany, we cannot leave it altogether 
unnoticed. It covers large districts in Northern California, 
about a hundred miles from the ocean, in lat. 43° north, 
and extends as far south as 4°. It grows sparingly upon 
low hills, and the undulating country east of a range of 
mountains, running in a south-western direction from the 
Rocky Mountains towards tho wf^a, where the soil consists 
entirely of pure sand. It forms no dense forests like most 
of the other pines of North America, but is seen scattered 
singly over the plains, more after the manner of Pinus 
rcsinosa. The trunk of this gigantic tree attains a height 
of from 150 to upwards of 250 feet, varying from twenty 
to nearly sixty feet in circumference ; — thus far exceeding 

" The tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
Of some great ammiral." 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 752.— This is the only 
American species that makes any approach in habit and appearance to 
the Pinus sylvestris, commonly called the Scotch fir. A distinguished 
writer in the Quarterly Review ascribed the deterioration of our planta- 
tions of the last-named tree to the circumstance of our nurserymen find- 
ing it cheaper to import cones from Canada, than to pay for gathering 
them in Braemar, — a charge, however, from which the trade must be 
fully and freely acquitted, as the Pinus sylvestris does not in fact exist 
in America. 

Dd 



314 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The stem is remarkably straight, and is destitute of 
branches for about two-thirds of its height. The bark is 
uncommonly smooth for such large timber ; of a light-brown 
colour on the south, and bleached on the north side. The 
branches are rather pendulous, and form an open pyramidal 
head, with that appearance which is peculiar to the abies 
tribe. The leaves are rigid, from four to five inches long, 
of a bright green colour, and grow in fives. The cones are 
pendulous from the extremities of the branches, and when 
ripe measure about eleven inches in circumference at the 
thickest part, and from twelve to sixteen inches in length. 
The scales are lax, rounded, and destitute of spines. The 
seeds are large, eight lines long and four broad, of an oval 
form. Their kernel is sweet and of a pleasant taste. The 
timber is white, soft, and light. It abounds in turpentine 
reservoirs ; its specific gravity is 0*463 ; and the whole tree 
produces an abundance of amber-coloured resin. That 
which exudes from the tree when it is partly burned loses 
its usual flavour, and acquires a sweet taste, in which state 
it is used by the natives as sugar, being mixed with their 
food.* The seeds also are eaten when roasted, and they 
are likewise pounded into coarse cakes and stored for winter 
use.t 

Numerous species of willow occur in the Northern Re- 
gions of America, — they are not yet well defined. The 



* Mr. David Douglas, in Linn. Trans., vol. xv., and Edin. New Phil, 
Jour. vol. V. p. 401. 

T We trust that our accomplished correspondent, Dr. Traill, of Liver- 
pool, will excuse our making the following extract from one of his 
private letters. " Have you seen Douglas ? I was greatly pleased with 
his intelligence and modesty. He gave me a most interesting sketch of 
his travels beyond the Rocky Mountains, and a simple but appalling 
account of the privations of a traveller in that part of the New World. 
The contrast between the vegetation of the western and eastern sides of 
the chain is striking. The variety of oaks, juglandes, and elms, inter- 
spersed with magnolias and rhododendrons, form the striking peculiari- 
ties of the eastern, — but beyond the mountains only one species of oak 
is found, while neither elms, juglandes, nor magnolias occur, and only a 
single rhododendron. It is, however, the favourite haunt of the giant-pine. 
He had measured several more than 250 feet high,— he saw some still 
taller, and took the circumference of a stem denuded of its bark, which 
was forty-eight feet in circumference, and at 190 feet from its base still 
bore a circumference of four and a half feet. The annual rings oq one 
stem were ascertained to be nine hundred." 



PLANTS. 315 

plant which yields the whortleberry {Empetrum nigrum) is 
valuable in these inhospitable regions. Its fruit, after the 
first frosts, is juicy and very pleasant ; it is much sought 
after and carefully hoarded by the different kinds of mar- 
mot, and forms the autumnal food of that species of duck 
called Anas hyperhorea. The Indian women use the buds 
of Myrica gale to die their porcupine quills. The Ameri- 
can trembling poplar {Populus trepida) occurs from Hudson's 
Bay as far to the northward of Great Slave Lake as lat. 
64°. It is found to burn better in a green state than any 
other tree of the country. The form of the leaf-stalk in 
this species is highly curious, and beautifully accords with, 
and accounts for, its continual motion, — the upper part be- 
ing rounded, and suddenly, at its junction with the leaf, 
becoming so thin and flat as to have scarcely sufficient 
strength to support it. The balsam poplar (P. halsamifera) 
may be said to grow to a greater circumference than any 
other species in these northern regions. Although it burns 
badly when green, and gives little heat, its ashes yield a 
great quantity of potash. It was traced as far north as 
Great Slave Lake, and the south branch of the Mackenzie 
has been named Riviere aux Liards, from its frequent preva- 
lence in that quarter. Great part of the drift-timber ob- 
served on the shores of the Arctic Sea belongs to this spe- 
cies of tree. It is called ugly poplar (matheh-meetoos) by 
the Crees. 

The fruit of the common juniper is known under the 
appellation of crowberry to the last-named nation ; and an- 
other species of that plant, of almost equal frequency {Ju- 
niperus prostrata), grows close to the ground, and sends out 
flageliform branches two yards long. 

. Of the Musci we shall here mention the Splachnum 
Tnnioides, which is very common on the Barren Grounds, 
where it forms little tufts, the roots of which are found 
always to include the bones of some small animal. Di- 
cranum elongatum likewise occurs on those desolate districts 
where, with other species of the genus, it forms dense 
tufts very troublesome to pedestrians. These are called 
*' women's heads" by the Indians, " because," say the latter, 
" when you kick them, they do not get out of the way ;" — 
a fine commentary on a life of unsophisticated nature, and a 



316 NATURAL HISTORY. 

beautiful illustration of the refined ideas which prevail in 
countries 

" Where wild in woods the noble savage runs." 

Of the Lichenes, of which there are many species in 
these northern countries, we shall name a few examples. 
Gyrophora proboscidea is found on rocks on the Barren 
Grounds, and is more abundant towards the Arctic Sea 
than G. hyperborea. These two species, in common with 
G. Pennsylvanica and Mecklenbergii, were found in greater 
or less abundance in almost all rocky places throughout the 
northern portions of the over-land journey. They were all 
four used as food ; but as our travellers had not the means 
of extracting the bitter principle from them, they proved in- 
jurious to several of the party by inducing severe bowel- 
complaints. The Indians reject them all except G. Meck- 
lenbergii, which, when boiled along with fish-roe or other 
animal matter, is agreeable and nutritious. The last-named 
lichen is, however, rather scarce on the Barren Grounds ; 
and Dr. Richardson and his companions were obliged to re- 
sort to the other three, which, though they served the pur- 
pose of allaying the appetite, were found to be very inefli- 
cient in restoring or recruiting strength. The G. vellea is 
characteristic of moist and shady rocks, and is consequently 
most luxuriant in woods. It forms a pleasanter food than 
any of the species we have named ; but it unfortunately 
occurs but sparingly on the Barren Grounds, where its 
presence would be most desirable. A new plant named 
Cetraria Richardsonii by Dr. Hooker, was found on these 
grounds generally in the tracks of the reindeer. It did 
not appear to occur to the southward of the Great Slave 
Lake. About a score of fungi were picked up by our sci- 
entific travellers. Exclusive of a conferva, and the frag- 
ment of a floridea, the Fucus ceranoides was the only alga 
observed in the Arctic seas.* 

The Appendix to Captain Parry's second voyage was 
published in 1825, and contains, among other highly-prized 
contributions, a botanical Appendix by Dr. Hooker. When 
the extent of the collections examined by that accomplished 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 763. 



PLANTS. 817 

botanist is considered, a greater accession of new species 
might have been expected than actually occurred ; but this 
is perhaps to be explained by the circumstance of the coun- 
tries explored during the second voyage being as it were 
intermediate between those previously examined, — Melville 
Island being to the north, and the continental portion of 
America, bordering the Arctic Sea, lying to the south of the 
districts to which we at present more immediately refer. 
This, in the opinion of Dr. Hooker, diminished the probability 
of the occurrence of many new species. In point of mere 
number, however, the second collections very considerably 
exceeded those of the preceding voyage, — and this may be 
explained partly by the more southern latitude in which the 
plants were gathered, and partly by the length of time 
spent in those districts. Dr. Hooker conceives that, as an 
illustration of the botanical productions of a region extend- 
ing from between lat. 62° to 70° north, his catalogue may 
be regarded as tolerably complete. The variety of crypto- 
gamia is particularly great, and the herbaria were in such 
admirable order as to reflect the highest credit on the skill 
and assiduity of the gentlemen by whom they were collected 
and preserved. 

" It may not be amiss," Dr. Hooker observes, " to notice 
here the extreme difficulty which attends the determination 
of what ought and what ought not to be considered as good 
species among Arctic plants. Vegetables of our own more 
southern latitudes often assume, in those frigid regions, an 
aspect quite different from what we are accustomed to see 
them wear ; and which, without referring to a very extensive 
series of specimens, might well be supposed to afford de- 
cided marks of specific distinction. Mr. Brown seems to be 
fully aware of this, and he speaks with caution of the 
identity of several of his new species. In more than one 
instance, after having drawn out a description of a supposed 
new individual, I have found cause to alter my opinion con- 
cerning it, and finally to consider it only as a variety of a well- 
known kind ; nor shall I be surprised if future observations 
should show that my Saxifraga plaiitaginifolia must be 
united to S. nivalis^ and my Chrysanthemum grandijiorum 
to C. inodorum, though at first sight nothing can appear 
more distinct."* 
* Appendix to Parry's Second Voyage to the Arctic Regions, p. 382. ] 
Dd2 



318 NATURAL HISTORY. 

We shall conclude this branch of the subject by a feW 
miscellaneous notices of recently-discovered species. 

The ten-leaved everlasting pea {Lalhyrus deca'phyllus) 
was found on the banks of the Saskatchawan by Dr. Rich- 
ardson and Mr. Drummond. It is adorned by fine heads of 
flowers, of a bright red colour before expansion, but which 
become purple as they open. This is an exceedingly 
ornamental plant, measuring about three feet in height. It 
was first raised in this country by Mr. Patrick Neill, of 
Canonmills, a gentleman well known for his encouragement 
of horticulture, and for his general attainments in many 
branches of natural science. 

Franklin's eutoca {Eutoca, Franklinii).* -This interest- 
ing annual was discovered by Dr. Richardson during the 
first over-land expedition. It was found growing in abun- 
dance among trees that had been destroyed by fire, on the 
banks of the Missinnippi, and was named by Mr. Brown 
in honour of the leader of the gallant band.f It has now 
become well known in our gardens, the seeds collected 
during the second expedition having been pretty generally 
distributed. It is a hardy plant, which recommends itself 
to notice by the profusion of its bright blue-coloured blos- 
soms. t 

The seashore lupin {Lupinus littoralis).^ This orna- 
mental and hardy perennial was discovered by Mr. Douglas, 
who found it " growing abundantly on the seashore of 
North-west America, from Cape Mendocino to Puget's 
Sound. Its tough branching roots are serviceable in bind- 
ing together the loose sand, and they are also used by the 
natives of the river Columbia as winter food, being pre- 
pared by the simple process of drawing them through the 
fire until all their moisture is dissipated. The roots are 
then tied up in small bundles, and will keep for several 
months ; when eaten, they are roasted on the embers, and 
become farinaceous. The vernacular name of this plant is 
Somnuchtan ; and it is the liquorice spoken of by Lewis and 
Clarke, and by the navigators who have visited the north- 
west coast of America. 

* Botanical Magazine, t. 2985. 

T Addenda to Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 764, and 
lab. 27. '^ * 

t Dr. Hooker, in Bot. Mag. ^ Ibid. t. 2953. 



PLANTS. 319 

We may add that Mr. Douglas has enriched our gardens 
by upwards of ten new species of this fine genus. 

Beautiful Clarkia {Clarkia pulchclla).* This hardy an- 
nual deserves its specific name, as it is really one of the 
most beautiful which has been recently introduced into our 
gardens. It was first discovered by Mr. Lewis on the 
Kooskoosky and Clarke Rivers, but was afterward found by 
Mr. Douglas extending from the great falls of the Columbia 
to the Rocky Mountains, and seeds were forwarded by him 
to the London Horticultural Society. The flowers are 
generally of a fine lilac colour, but a pure white variety is 
also known. 

Mr. Douglas discovered in the northern parts of America, 
and introduced into the British gardens, about fifteen new 
species of Pentstemon, all of which are ornamental, and 
many exceedingly beautiful herbaceous plants. To the 
same intelligent and indefatigable collector we are also in- 
debted for several fine species of CEnothera or tree primrose. 
We owe to Dr. Richardson and Mr. Drummond the in- 
troduction to our gardens of the following species : — viz. 
Gerardia capitata, a handsome perennial ; an apparently 
new species of Dodecatheon, which has flowered this sum- 
mer in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ; Andromeda tetra- 
gona, Menziesia empetrifolia, Azalea Lapponica (three very 
beautiful small shrubby plants), and Bryas Drummondii. 
The last-named plant bears yellow flowers. Of the other 
two known species of the genus, one of which is a native 
of the mountains of Scotland, the flowers are white. 

* Dr. Hooker, in Bot. Mag. t. 2918. 



320 NATURAL HISTORY 



CHAPTER X. 

Sketch of the Geological Features of some of the Northern 
Districts of America. 

Frozen Subsoil of Hudson's Bay — Primitive Rocks of Hayes River — 
Hill River— Borders of Knee Lake— Remarkable Rock-island of Mag- 
netic Iron Ore — Lake Winipeg — Limestone District — Fort Chipewyan 
— Carp Lake — Gneiss Formation of the Barren Grounds — Transparent 
Waters of Great Bear Lake— Fort Franklin— Bear Lake River- Lig- 
nite Formation of Mackenzie River— Spontaneous Fire — Pipe Clay — 
Alluvial Islands at the Mouth of the Mackenzie— Copper Mountains — 
Coppermine River— Islands of the Arctic Sea— Arctic Shore— Cape 
Barrow — Galena Point— Moore's Bay — Bankes' Peninsula— Barry's 
Island— Cape Croker— Point Turnagain — General Occurrence of the 
New Red Sand-Stone — Hood's River — Wilberforce Falls— Gneiss For- 
mation — General Summary. 

The great extent of country traversed by our over-land 
adventurers, the dreary continuance of that universal snow, 
which so long rendered the surface of the earth in many 
places almost inaccessible, the frequent journeys in canoes, 
and the difficulties which almost perpetually prevailed in 
the way of transporting weighty articles, prevented a com- 
plete or very satisfactory knowledge being obtained of the 
geological structure of the Northern Regions of America.* 
For the reasons stated below, we shall here confine our 
observations to certain restricted districts in those regions. 

Between the fifty-sixth and fifty-eighth parallels the west- 
ern shores of Hudson's Bay are extremely flat, and the 
depth of water decreases very gradually on approaching 

* In the fourteenth volume of the Family Library, entitled " Nar- 
rative of Discovery and Adventure in the Polar Seas and Regions," the 
reader will find a chapter on Arctic Geology by Professor Jameson, in 
which the characteristic formations of Cherie Island, Jan Mayen's Island, 
Spitzbergen, Old Greenland, and the various insular and continental 
shores explored by the expeditions under Captains Ross and Parry, are 
described and commented on. So far, therefore, as regards many of the 
great North-eastern regions of America, we beg to refer the reader to 
Professor Jameson's skilful summary. See also observations on the 
Rock Specimens collected during the First Polar Voyage, by Charles 
Konig, Esq. Supplement to the Appendix, p. 247, 



GEOLOGY. 321 

them. Dr. Richardson states that in seven fathoms of 
water the tops of the trees are just visible from a ship's 
deck. Large boulder-stones are scattered over the beach, 
and sometimes form shoals as far as five miles from shore. 
These are, of course, troublesome and dangerous to boats. 
Hayes and Nelson Rivers enter Hudson's Bay about the 
central portion of this quarter. They are separated on 
reaching the coast merely by a low alluvial point of land, 
on which York Factory is stationed. A low and uniformly 
swampy aspect characterizes the suTrounding country and 
the banks of Hayes River at least for fifty miles inland. 
The upper soil presents a thin stratum of half-decayed 
mosses, immediately under which we find a thick bed of 
tenacious and somewhat slaty bluish clay containing boulder- 
stones. Forests, consisting chiefly of spruces, larches, and 
poplars, occur, but the individual trees, except under local 
circumstances of a favourable nature, are of a small size. 

The subsoil is generally frozen, and as it consequently 
retains a great deal of the surface-water, swamps of sphagna 
and other mosses are always being formed ; but the bright 
summer days, though long, are few, and as vegetation thus 
decays but slowly, little peat occurs. During a favourable 
season the ground thaws to the depth of about four feet ; 
but there still remains, it is said, a frozen bed of ten or 
eleven feet, beneath which we find loose sand. As the 
earth is not thus permanently frozen in the interior countries 
of North America, the ungenial condition of the soil about 
York Factory ought probably to be attributed to the neigh- 
bourhood of the sea, which is too much encumbered with 
ice during winter to mitigate the severity of those naturally 
frost-bound regions, and being laden along shore with 
numerous icebergs and other insulated masses, even to the 
middle of August, must of course diminish the intensity of 
the summer heat.* 

The boulder-stones just mentioned show that there occur 
in the district of Hayes River several primitive rocks, such 
as. red granite, hornblende rock, gneiss, and syenite ; of the 
transition class, gray wacke ; and of the secondary class, red 
sandstone, belonging probably to the new red sandstone 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey to the Shores of the Polar 
Sea, p. 499. 



322 NATURAL HISTORY. 

formation, in which is included the rothegende and varie- 
gated sandstone. Two kindir of limestone likewise occur 
in this district. 

The banks of Steel River, the principal branch of the 
Hayes, present the same general characters as those of the 
stream into which it flows. The same, may be said of Fox 
and Hill Rivers, the union of which forms the Steel River. 
However, on the lower parts of Hill River the banks are 
more varied in their outlines, and rising more precipitately 
and from a narrow channel, they attain to an elevation of 
nearly 200 feet. About a mile below the Rock Portage, 
that is, about 100 miles from the sea, rocks first occur in 
situ. They consist of gneiss, and rise in the channel of 
the river from beneath lofty banks of clay. This gneiss 
formation seems to extend to Lake Winipeg, and contains 
subordinate beds and veins of granite, and beds of horn- 
blende rock, and mica-slate. At the Swampy Portage a bed 
of red felspar occurs. It contains small grains of epidote, 
and at the Upper Portage hornblende-slate was observed, 
alternating with gray gneiss, slightly intermingled with 
hornblende, together with beds of quartz rock containing 
precious garnets. At the Lower Portage on Jack River 
(the name of Hill River after crossing Swampy Lake) a red 
granite occurs. The rocks on Jack River are low, with a 
very spare covering of soil ; the woods are thin, and the 
surrounding country flat. The borders of Knee Lake pre- 
sent similar characters ; but in one spot which was examined 
on account of its exhibiting a more luxuriant growth of 
trees, the soil was still thin, but the subjacent rock con- 
sisted of primitive greenstone, with disseminated iron 
pyrites. " About half a mile from the bend or knee of the 
lake," says Sir John Franklin, "there is a small rocky 
island, composed of magnetic iron ore, which affects the 
magnetic needle at a considerable distance. Having re- 
ceived previous information respecting this circumstance, 
we watched our compasses carefully, and perceived that Ihey 
were affected at the distance of three hundred yards, both 
on the approach to and departure from the rock : on de- 
creasing the distance they became gradually more and more 
unsteady, and on landing they were rendered useless ; and 
it was evident that the general magnetic influence was 
totally overpowered by the local attraction of the ore. 



GEOLOGY. 323 

When Kater's compass was held near to the ground, on the 
north-west side of the island, the needle dipped so much 
that the card could not be made to traverse by any adjust- 
ment of the hand ; but on moving the same compass about 
thirty yards to the west part of the islet, the needle became 
horizontal, traversed freely, and pointed to the magnetic 
north."*- 

We are indebted to Sir Alexander Mackenzie for the 
valuable observation, that the principal lakes in these north- 
ern quarters are interposed between the primitive rocks and 
the secondary strata which lie to the westward of them. 
Of this Lake Winipeg affords a good example. It is a long 
narrow sheet of water, bounded on its eastern side by primi- 
tive rocks, which are mostly granitic, while horizontal lime- 
stone strata form its more indented western shore. 

The north shore of Lake Winipeg is formed into a 
peninsula by Play-Green Lake and Limestone Bay. Steep 
cliffs of clay are here prevalent, similar to those which pre- 
ceded the gneiss in Hill River, but containing rather more 
calcareous matter. The beach is composed of calcareous 
sand, and fragments of water-worn limestone, of which 
there are two kinds ; the one yellowish-white, dull, with 
conchoidal fracture and translucent edges ; the other bluish 
and yellowish-gray, dull, with an earthy fracture and opaque. 
Dr. Richardson did not observe any rocks of the former kind 
in situ in this neighbourhood, although cliffs of the latter 
were apparent on the west side of Limestone Bay, and 
continued to bound the lake as far as the mouth of the 
Saskatchawan, and were reported to spread down the whole 
of its western shore. 

The extension of the limestone deposites of Lake Winipeg, 
in a westerly direction, has not been ascertained, but it has 
been traced as far up the Saskatchawan as Carlton House, 
where it is at least 280 miles in breadth. 

This limestone extends over a vast tract of country, and 
may in general be characterized as compact, splinty, and 
yellowish-gray. It is very testaceous, and large portions 
of it are entirely composed of bivalve shells. In the journey 
up the Saskatchawan it was traced to the Neepewan, a dis- 
tance of 300 miles, where it is either succeeded or covered 

* Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, p. 36. 



324 NATURAL HISTORY. 

by cliffs of calcareous clay. It is probable that the lime- 
stone formation not only extends over a vast portion of the 
plains, but also runs parallel to the Rocky Mountains as far 
as Mackenzie River. Betv^reen it and the Rocky Mountains, 
rocks of the coal formation occur ; and beds of burning coal 
have been known for many years on the upper parts of the 
Saskatchawan, as well as on the last-named river. One of 
the most marked characteristics of the limestone formation 
is the entire exclusion of foreign beds. It was never ob- 
served in association with any other rock, except, perhaps, 
on Elk River, where it appeared in contact with compact 
earthy marl and slaggy mineral-pitch, or bituminous sand- 
stone ; and on Coppermine River, where rolled fragments 
of a similar stone were found connected with layers of dark 
flinty slate. Salt springs and lakes exist from twelve to 
twenty miles to the northward of Carlton House. 

In Athabasca Lake Sir John Franklin's party came again 
upon the edge of the primitive formation. Fort Chipewyan 
seemed to stand upon a granite rock, and a little to the 
eastward a reddish granite is associated with gray gneiss. 
Granite is the most abundant rock on Slave River ; but it 
disappears about a mile and a half below the Portage des 
Noyes, and the banks from thence to Slave Lake are allu- 
vial. At the mouth of the Yellow Knife River, and in Lake 
Prosperous, mica-slate prevailed ; and between Rocky and 
Carp Lakes the granite contains many beds of mica-slate, 
often passing into clay-slate. Here the country is tolerably 
wooded, and white spruce occupy the rocky situations, 
Pinus Banksiana the sandy spots, and aspen the low moist 
places.* 

At Carp Lake the hills are of lower altitude, the valleys 
are less fertile and have fewer trees, and these features 
seem to characterize the commencement of the gneiss forma- 
tion, which extends over the great district to the eastward 
of the Coppermine River, termed by the Indians the Barren 
Grounds. The soil is inimical to almost every species of 
vegetation. The summits of the hills about Fort Enterprise 
are composed of a durable red granite, and large masses 
of the same substance are scattered over their surface. On 

* Appendix to Franklin's First Journey to the Shores of the Polar 
Sea, p. 520, 



GEOLOGY. 325 

an arm of Point Lake, forty-five miles due north of Fort 
Enterprise, the rocks belong to the transition class. The 
light blue-coloured waters of Great Bear Lake are very- 
transparent, more especially in the vicinity of the primitive 
mountains of M'Tavish Bay. A piece of white rag, when 
sunk, did not disappear till it had descended to the depth of 
fifteen fathoms. The surface of Bear Lake is not supposed 
to be 200 feet above the Arctic Sea, and as its depth is much 
greater than that amount of feet, its bottom must consequently 
be below the level of the sea.* At the mouth of Dease's 
River, the hills are five or six hundred feet high, and are 
composed principally, if not entirely, of dolomite, in hori- 
zontal strata. The northern shores of Bear Lake are low, 
and skirted by numerous shoals of limestone boulders. At 
the foot of the Scented Grass Hill, a rivulet has made a 
section to the depth of 100 feet, and there shaly beds are 
seen interstratified with thin layers of blackish-brown earthy- 
looking limestone, containing selenite and pyrites. Globular 
concretions of that stone, and of a poor clay iron-stone, also 
occur in beds in the shale. The surfaces of the slate-clay 
were covered by an efflorescence of alum and sulphur, and 
many crystals of sulphate of iron lie at the bottom of the 
cliff, and several layers of plumose alum, half an inch in 
thickness, occur in the strata. At the base of Great Bear 
Mountain, the bituminous shale is interstratified with slate- 
clay, and Dr. Richardson found imbedded in the former a 
single piece of brown coal, in which the fibrous structure 
of wood is apparent.! 

On the northern shore of Keith Bay, about four miles 
from Bear Lake River, stands Fort Franklin, upon a small 
terrace, which is elevated about thirty feet above the lake. 
The bottom of the bay, wherever distinguishable, was ob- 
served to be sandy, and thickly strewed with rounded primi- 
tive boulders of great size, which were particularly abun- 
dant near the river, — and the waters of the cape formed by 
Scented Grass Hill were also strewed with large square 
blocks of limestone. All these boulders must have been 
carried from the parent rocks by a current flowing from the 

* In M'Tavish Bay, near the shore of Great Slave Lake, forty-five 
fathoms of line did not reach the bottom. Some of the great lakes of 
Canada are supposed to descend 300 feet below the " Ocean's brim." 

t Appendix to Franklin's Second Journey, p. 6. 
Ee 



326 NATURAL HISTORY. 

east. Two varieties of granite which occur among them 
were recognised as forming abundant rocks at Fort Enter- 
prise, which lies about 170 miles south-east from M'Tavish 
Bay. The soil in the vicinity of Fort Franklin is sandy or 
gravelly, and covers to the depth of one or two feet a bed 
of clay of unknown thickness. This clay continues firmly 
frozen during the greater portion of the year, and the thaw 
seldom penetrates more than a couple of feet into the sur- 
face of the earth. 

Bear Lake River is about seventy miles long, from its 
origin in the lake till it falls into the Mackenzie, and its 
breadth is never less than 150 yards, except at the rapid. 
Sections made by the river generally present sand or clay^ 
— the former probably proceeding from the disintegratioa 
of a friable gray sandstone, which occasionally shows itself 
in the more solid form. The walls of the rapid are about 
three miles long, and 120 feet high. They are composed 
of horizontal beds, the lower of which consist of an earthy- 
looking stone, intermediate between slate-clay and sand- 
stone, having interiorly a dull yellowish-gray colour. These 
beds are separated by thin slaty layers, of a substance simi- 
lar in appearance, but harder, which contain impressions 
of ferns, and from the debris at the bottom of the cliff Dr. 
Richardson gathered impressions of the bark of a tree 
(lepidodendron) and some ammonites in a brown iron-shot 
sandstone. These are regarded by Mr. Sowerby as of a 
new species. They contain sulphate of barytes, and are 
supposed to be referable to some of the oolites near the 
Oxford clay. 

We may here notice the remarkable lignite formation of 
Mackenzie River. The formation which constitutes its 
banks consists of wood-coal in various states, alternating 
with beds of pipe-clay, potter's clay (occasionally bitumi- 
nous), slate-clay, gravel, sand, and friable sandstones, and 
occasionally with porcelain-earth. These strata are usually 
horizontal, and as many as four beds of lignite are exposed 
in some places, of which the upper are above the highest 
river floods of present times. The lignite itself is pretty 
compact when recently detached ; but it soon splits into 
rhomboidal pieces, separable into more or less delicate slaty 
portions. When burnt, it produces little smoke or flame, 
and leaves a browai^h-red residuum, not one-tenth of the 



GEOLOGY. 327 

original bulk. But the smell is very fetid, resembling that 
of phosphorus. It was found unfit for welding iron when 
used alone, but it sufficed when mixed with charcoal. 
However, the smell was still most annoying. A frequent 
form of this lignite is that of slate, of a dull brownish- 
black colour, with a shining streak. 

These remarkable beds seem to take fire spontaneously 
when exposed to the action of the air. They were found 
burning by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, when he passed 
downwards in 1 789, and are supposed to have been on fire 
ever since. Large slips of the banks take place in conse- 
quence of the destruction of the coal, and it is only when 
the debris has been washed away by the river that good sec- 
tions become visible. " The beds were on fire when we 
visited them ; and the burnt clay, vitrified sand, aggluti- 
nated gravel, &c. gave many spots the appearance of an old 
brick-field."* 

The pipe-clay is also sufficiently singular to deserve a 
special notice. It occurs in beds from six inches to a foot 
in thickness, and chiefly in contact with the lignite. Its 
colour is yellowish-white ; in some places, however, it is 
light lake-red. It is used by the natives as an article of 
food in times of scarcity, and is said to be capable of sus- 
taining life for a considerable time. It is known to the 
traders under the name of white mud. They wash their 
houses with it. 

The alluvial islands at the mouth of the Mackenzie 
separate the various branches of that great river. These 
islands are either partially or entirely flooded in the spring ; 
their centres are depressed, and are either marshy or occu- 
pied by a lake. Their borders, however, are more elevated, 
and are well clothed by white spruce-trees. These, and 
whatever other trees are produced in the islands, suddenly 
cease to grow about latitude 68° 40'. 

The famous Copper Mountains, so called, consist prin- 
cipally of trap rocks, which seemed to Dr. Richardson to 
be imposed upon the new red sandstone, or the flcetz lime- 
stone which covers it. They rise to a height of eight or 
nine hundred feet above the level of the river, and present 
a softish outline at a distance ; but on a nearer view they 

* Appendix to Franklin's Second Journey, p. 18. 



328 NATURAL HISTORY. 

seem composed of ridges, many of which have precipitous 
sides. The summits are stony and uneven. The largest 
pieces of copper are found associated with prehnite, and the 
Indians are careful to search for ore wherever they observe 
pieces of the last-named mineral lying on the surface. The 
original repository or vein of copper ore does not appear to 
have been hitherto observed ; but judging from specimens 
picked up by our overland expeditions, it most probably 
traverses felspathose trap. Ice-chisels have been observed 
in the possession of the Esquimaux measuring twelve or 
fourteen inches long, and half an inch in diameter, formed 
of pure copper. 

Another range of trap hills occurs at the distance of 
ten miles to the northward of the Copper Mountains. This 
range is about twenty miles from the Arctic Sea, and be- 
yond it the country is very level, with a subsoil of light 
brownish-red sandstone. These desolate plains nourish 
only a coarse short grass, and the trees, which had previously 
dwindled to scraggy clumps, entirely disappear. 

At the mouth of the Coppermine River there occurs a 
low ridge of greenstone ; and from thence to Bloody Fall, 
which is a distance of about ten miles, the country is very 
level, with the exception of some ridges of trap, by which 
it is traversed. The channel of the river is sunk nearly 
150 feet below the level of the surrounding country, and is 
bounded by cliffs of yellowish-white sand, and sometimes 
of clay, beneath which beds of greenstone occasionally 
crop out. 

The islands in this quarter of the Arctic Sea are invari- 
ably rocky. They present a remarkable uniformity of ap- 
pearance, and are very generally bounded by mural preci- 
pices of trap-rock clinkstone or claystone. But the main 
shore presents a greater diversity. For sixty miles east- 
ward of Coppermine River, the beach is low and gravelly, 
but towards Tree River the trap rocks reappear and form a 
steril and rocky coast. At Port Epworth the valleys were 
stony, and almost entirely destitute of herbage. The rocks 
observed were liver-brown clinkstone porphyry, with a few 
beds of earthy greenstone, and the same formation extends 
to the mouth of Wentzel's River, to the eastward of which 
a projection of the coast forms Cape Barrow. When Dr. 
Richardson rounded this cape the weather was extremely 



GEOLOGY. 329 

foggy, but the rocks examined consisted of a beautiful ad- 
mixture of red and gray granite, fonning steep and craggy 
peaks which rose abruptly from the water to the height of 
1500 feet. At Detention Harbour the granite hills termi- 
nate abruptly, or recede from the coast, giving place to less 
elevated strata of gneiss, in which beds of red granite are 
enclosed. A vein of galena Vt'as observed running through 
the gneiss for two hundred yards at the spot named in con- 
sequence Galena Point.* A mass of indurated iron-shot 
slaty clay occurs on the western point of Moore's Bay, and 
the promontory which forms the eastern side of that bay is 
composed of trap rocks and claystone porphyry, whose 
mural precipices constitute the sides of narrow valleys, 
opening at either end towards the sea. An iron-shot clink- 
stone porphyry, with a columnar aspect, prevails from 
Moore's Bay to the entrance of Arctic Sound. The eastern 
shore of that sound is covered with grass, and scarcely ex- 
hibits any naked rock ; but the clinkstone porphyry reap- 
pears on Bankes's Peninsula, along with an earthy-looking 
greenstone, and forms as usual parallel ranges of mural 
precipice. On Barry's Island the trap rocks form cliffs from 
50 to 160 feet high, superimposed on thick beds of in- 
durated clay or marl. A red amygdaloidal rock, containing 
beautiful pebbles of carnelian, chalcedony, and imbedded 
jaspers, was observed on the north side of the island. 

Trap rocks, for the most part greenstone, and sandstone 
of the new red formation, characterize Sir James Gordon's 
Bay ; but to the north of Fowler's Bay the gneiss reap- 
pears, with beds of granite and hornblende gneiss. Hex- 
agonal crystals of hornblende, above a foot long, were ob- 
served imbedded in the gneiss near Point Evritt, and the 
islands in the offing consisted as usual of floetz trap or por- 
phyry. Cape Croker is composed of red sandstone, of 
which the debris forms a shelving and utterly barren shore. 
Grayish-white sandstone, associated with or passing into 
slaty-clay, was visible on the northern shore of Melville 
Sound, wherever the barren clayey sand was washed away. 
Cliffs of greenstone, or of clay-stone porphyry, superim- 
posed on the flat strata, presented the appearance of islands, 
when seen from the opposite coast, as our exploring party 

♦ Appendix to Franklin'B First Journey, p. 531. 
Ee2 



330 NATURAL HISTORY. 

entered the sound, and had the low connecting land been 
then visible, a tedious and unnecessary circumnavigation 
of the sound itself would have been saved. The coast ex- 
hibited the same appearance as far as Point Turnagain, the 
most eastern point attained by the overland expeditions. 

On a general view, it appears that the new red sandstone 
formation prevails along those portions of the North Ame- 
rican Arctic shores. *' All the islands visited," says Dr. 
Richardson, " were formed of trap or porphyry belonging 
to that formation ; and, judging from similarity of form, 
the rocks of the other islands belong to the same class. 
The gneiss formation is next in extent ; and, indeed, it 
appears to run nearly parallel to the coast within the red 
sandstone from Cape Barrow, across Hood's River above 
Wilberforce Falls, to the bottom of Bathurst's Inlet, and 
from thence to Hope's Bay, on the western side of Melville 
Sound. The only foreign beds we observed in the gneiss 
were granite, perhaps quartz-rock and hornblendic gneiss or 
syenite. We saw no clay or mica-slate, nor did we observe 
any formations intermediate between the gneiss and new 
red sandstone ; nor, except at Cape Barrow, where granite 
predominates, any other formation than the two just men- 
tioned. Our opportunities for observation, however, were 
not extensive ; the necessity of proceeding without delay 
limiting our botanical and geognostical excursions to the 
short period that was required to prepare breakfast or 
supper."* 

From Point Turnagain the party proceeded to Hood's 
River, which they traced to some distance. Near its mouth 
that river is from 100 to 300 yards in width, and is bounded 
by steep high banks of clay, reposing on floetz rocks. At 
Wilberforce Falls, which are six or seven miles above the 
second rapid, the river makes a striking descent of about 
250 feet into a chasm, the walls of which consist of light- 
red felspathose sandstone, belonging, as Dr. Richardson 
supposes, to the old red sandstone formation, or that which 
lies under coal, and occasionally alternates with transition 
rocks.i A short distance above these falls the gneiss forma- 
tion appears, and produces hills precisely similar to those 
about Fort Enterprise. On quitting Hood's River our ex- 

♦ Appendix to Franklin's First Journey, p. 533. t Ibid. p. 534. 



GEOLOGY. 331 

ploring party ascended from the valley through which it 
flows, and entered upon an even, clayey, and very barren 
district, partially covered by shallow lakes. This plain 
country continued nearly as far as Cracroft's River, where 
the gneiss reappeared, and presented those bleak hills and 
precipices so characteristic of the Barren Grounds. The 
gneiss formation was observed to continue without essential 
change to Obstruction Rapid, between Providence and 
Point Lakes, where it united with the Fort Enterprise dis- 
trict formerly alluded to. 

The preceding geognostical details, and others into the 
consideration of which we cannot here enter, render it ap- 
parent that the general distribution and connexion of the 
hills and mountain-masses of these northern regions are 
nearly the same as geologists have observed to characterize 
similar materials in other portions of the earth. The 
primitive rocks occur in their usual relations ; and gneiss, 
attended by an extremely scanty vegetation, appears to be 
the most extensively distributed. Granite was the. next in 
frequency ; after which may be placed mica-slate. Clay- 
slate and protogine were the least abundant. The granite 
of Cape Barrow was intersected by veins of augite green- 
stone of the same description as those which occur in the 
granite districts of Great Britain, and the primitive rocks in 
general were found to be traversed by veins of felspar, 
quartz, and granite. 

The transition rocks, consisting principally of clay-sIate 
and graywacke, bore a strong resemblance to those in 
Dumfries-shire, — a fact which did not fail to attract the 
attention of Dr. Richardson, himself a native of that dis- 
trict. 

In regard to the secondary formations, the facts observed 
by Dr. Richardson show the existence — First, Of the old 
red sandstone, or that which lies under coal, and occasionally 
alternates with transition rocks : Second, Of the coal form- 
ation, which was ascertained to occur in certain districts of 
Mackenzie River, and towards the Rocky Mountains : Third, 
Of the new red or variegated sandstone, an important form- 
ation of considerable extent, which contained, as it is known 
to do in the Old World, gypsum and beds of salt, or of 
muriatiferous clay, affording saline materials for the im- 



332 NATURAL HISTORY. 

pregnations of the salt springs which issue from it : Fourth, 
Of the secondary limestone belonging to that vast deposits 
which lies above the new^ red sandstone, and beneath chalk, 
and which occupies extensive tracts in Britain and other 
parts of Europe : Fifth, Of the secondary trap and porphyry 
rocks, in the composition and character of which one of the 
most interesting features is undoubtedly the frequent oc- 
currence of native copper, both among the Copper Moun- 
tains themselves, and along the Arctic shore. 

The alluvial deposites consist, as usual, of sand, gravel, 
rolled blocks, boulder-stones, and the debris of various 
rocks. We may conclude by observing, in the words of Dr. 
Richardson, to whom we are deeply indebted for the inform- 
ation presented in this volume, that the foregoing details 
make it manifest " that in the regions we traversed the rocks 
of the primitive, transition, secondary, and alluvial classes 
have the same general composition, structure, position, and 
distribution as in other parts of America which have been 
examined ; and as these agree in all respects with the 
rock formations in Europe and Asia, they may with pro- 
priety be considered as universal formations — parts of a 
grand and harmonious whole — the production of Infinite 
Wisdom." 

" Stand still and behold the wondrous works ok 
God, — THE wondrous works of him which is perfect 

IN knowledge." 

"Remember that thou magnify his work which men 
BEHOLD. Every man may see it ; men may behold it 

AFAR OFF." 

" O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom 
hast thou made them all! the earth is full of thy 

RICHES." 

" Before the mountains were brought forth, or 

EVER thou HADST FORMED THE EARTH AND THE WORLD, 
EVEN FROM EVERLASTING TO EVERLASTING, THOU ART GoD." 



APPENDIX 



REMARKS 

ON 

A LATE MEMOIR OF SEBASTIAN CABOT, 

WITH A 

VINDICATION OF RICHARD HAKLUYT. 



" Floreat Historia Britannica, recordis authenticisque expromatun 
Scribatur lente, mature, ordinate, sincere, dilucide, sine partium studio, 
sine pravo consilio, sineomni vili affectu viris literatis indigno." — Madox, 
Disceptatio Epistolaris De Magna Rotulo Scaccarii. 



The reader is already aware, that in the present volume 
the discovery of North America, in the reign of Henry VII., 
has been exclusively ascribed to John Cabot, a Venetian, 
who had settled as a merchant at Bristol. The author of a 
late work* has attributed this noted extension of geographi- 
cal knowledge solely to the subject of his biography, Sebas- 
tian Cabot, the son of John. According to him, it was Se- 
bastian who projected the expedition in which the discovery 
was made, — it was Sebastian who conducted the expedition, 
— it is doubtful whether John Cabot accompanied the voyage 
at all, and it is certain, if he did, it was simply as a merchant 
who traded on his capital. The biographer has brought for- 
ward his arguments in support of this theory, in the fifth 
chapter of his work, entitled Comparative Agency of John 

* Memoir of Sebastian Cabot. 



334 APPENDIX. 

and Sebastian Cabot ; and it is in the course of these argu- 
ments that he has made an attack upon the integrity and 
honesty of Richard Hakluyt, a writer to whom the history 
of maritime discovery is under the deepest obligations. These 
two points, therefore, — the discovery of North America, and 
the credit due to the evidence of Hakluyt, — must necessarily 
be considered in conjunction ; and we trust we shall con- 
vince every impartial reader of the accuracy of our assertion, 
that John Cabot was the discoverer, and that the attack 
upon Hakluyt is perfectly unfounded. 

Before, however, proceeding to the more immediate sub- 
ject of inquiry, we may be permitted to say, that although 
it becomes our duty to point out repeated and riiaterial errors, 
and in some instances considerable injustice committed by 
the biographer of Cabot, we are anxious to avoid that pe- 
culiar asperity which he has unnecessarily mingled with a 
subject so remote that it may surely be approached in a 
spirit of great calmness and impartiality. We wish to em- 
ploy no expression which may give a moment's unnecessary 
pain to the biographer. His Memoir of Cabot, as may be 
seen from the references to it in the course of this volume, 
has been frequently of use to us. Although rather a piece 
of biographical and historical criticism than a pure biogra- 
phy, it is a meritorious work ; it points out to the reader 
some recondite sources of information, — its deductions and 
arguments are often acute and ingenious, — and, confused 
and deficient as it is in its arrangement, it contains occa- 
sional passages which are eloquently written. But it is im- 
possible not to regret that there is infused into the whole 
book a more than ordinary proportion of that bitter and 
querulous spirit which, in a greater or less degree, seems 
inseparable from the lucubrations of the antiquary, — that 
the author has poured abuse, contempt, and ridicule upon 
those who have fallen into errors which he sometimes has, 
and at other times imagines he has, detected, — and that he 
is unscrupulous in imputing unfair and ungenerous motives 
to those who little deserve such an accusation. Robertson, 
Forster, Henry, Campbell, Southey, Barrow, and other able 
writers, are attacked in unmeasured terms, as the arch pro- 
pagators of all that is erroneous and superficial on the sub- 
ject of maritime discovery ; and our excellent friend Rich- 
ard Hakluyt, who has slept in an honoured grave for upwards 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUyT 335 

of two centuries, is resuscitated to be treated only with more 
unsparing severity. We proceed now to the discussion of the 
point in question, — Who discovered North America 1 The 
fact, then, that it was John Cabot who projected, fitted 
out, and conducted the expedition by which this discovery 
was made rests on evidence so conclusive, that it is diffi- 
cult to imagine how any impartial inquirer can resist its 
force. 

First, There is the original commission or letters-patent 
in Rymer, vol. xii. p. 595, in which Johii Cabot is evidently 
the principal person intrusted with the undertaking. His 
three sons, Lewis, Sebastian, and Sanchez, are indeed in- 
cluded with him in the patent ; but it is allowed on alt 
hands that neither Lewis nor Sanchez accompanied the 
voyage, and Sebastian, although he undoubtedly went along 
with his father, could not then have been more than twenty, 
— an age excluding the idea of his either originating or con- 
ducting the enterprise. 

Secondly, We have the language of the second patent, 
dated the 3d February, 1498, in which the letters are di- 
rected to Johji Cabot alone, and he is empowered to sail with 
his ships to the land and isles o{ late found by the said John, 
in the king's name and commandment, — a piece of evidence 
which, even if it stood single and unsupported, appears to 
be decisive of the question. 

Thirdly, We have the inscription under the contemporary 
portrait of Sebastian Cabot, painted by Holbein, in which 
he is described as the son of the Venetian, Sir John Cabot, 
who was the first discoverer of the New Land, " Primi In- 
ventoris Terras Novae sub Henrico VH., AngUse Rege;" 
and in the 

Fourth place, A proof of the same fact is to be found in 
the inscription by Clement Adams upon the Map of America 
which he engraved after a drawing of Sebastian Cabot's, 
and in the lifetime of this navigator. In this inscription, 
as already more minutely pointed out,* the principal place 
is given to the father, John Cabot, and the son is mentioned, 
as it appears to us, not as commanding the ships or having 
originated the voyage, but simply as accompanying the ex^ 
pedition. 

* Supra, p. 16, 17. 



336 APPENDIX. 

Having gone thus far, we are now ready to enter upon 
the investigation of the arguments urged by the biographer 
in favour of the claim which he has set up for Sebastian as 
the sole discoverer ; and here we may remark, that in the 
classification of his evidence he has followed a method 
which is certainly not the best calculated for the manifesta- 
tion of truth. He first arranges what he denominates the 
proofs in support of the father ; but those which he enu- 
merates first, and which alone he discusses with minute 
attention, are the weakest that could be selected, and such 
as no one who carefully weighs them would place much re- 
liance on ; while the unanswerable evidence is brought in 
last with extreme brevity, and dismissed with scarce any 
observation. 

" The various items of evidence," says he, " which are 
supposed to establish the prevailing personal agency of 
John Cabot, may be ranked thus : — 

"1. The alleged statement of Robert Fabyan. 

" 2. The language of more recent writers as to the char- 
acter of the father. 

" 3. The appearance of his name in the map cut by 
Clement Adams, and also in the patents. 

" As to the first," he continues, " the authority usually 
referred to is found in Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 9, — 'A note of 
Sebastian Cabot's first discoverie of part of the Indies, taken 
out of the latter part of Robert Fabyan's Chronicle, not 
hitherto printed, which is in the custodie of M. John Scow, 
a diligent preserver of antiquities. In the 13 yeere of K. 
Henry the 7 (by meanes of one John Cabot, a Venetian, 
which made himselfe very expert and cunning in the know- 
ledge of the circuit of the world, and islands of the same, 
as by a sea-card and other demonstrations reasonable he 
shewed), the king caused to man and victuall a ship at Bris- 
tow, to search for an island which he said he knew well 'was 
rich, and replenished with great commodities ; which shippe, 
thus manned and victualled, at the king's costs, divers 
merchants of London ventured in her small stocks, being in 
her, as chief patron, the said Venetian. And in the com- 
pany of the said ship, sailed also out of Bristow, three or 
foure small ships, fraught with sleight and grosse marchan- 
dises, as course cloth, caps, laces, points, and other trifles. 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 337 

and so departed from Bristow in the beginning of May, of 
whom, in this maior's time, returned no tidings.' " 

This is the passage which the author of the Memoir has 
accused Hakluyt of perverting ; and, instead of giving it 
simply as it was furnished by Stow, — of interpolating the 
name of John Cabot. Nor is it difficult to see how he was 
led to make this accusation. It was necessary, in support 
of his views, to show that this alleged statement of Fabyan 
contained no allusion to John, but actually supported the 
claim of Sebastian Cabot : but this could not be done if 
Hakluyt has given it fairly ; and in this way the biogra- 
pher, animated with zeal for his theory, was imperceptibly 
drawn on to attack the integrity of this writer. Now, be- 
fore considering so grave an accusation against Hakluyt, 
we have one introductory remark to make upon this quota- 
tion from Fabyan. It is certain that it alludes to the second 
voyage made to North America by Sebastian Cabot, in the 
year 1498, and not to the first, in which that country was 
discovered. Of this the passage contains internal evidence 
which is perfectly conclusive. The first voyage took place 
in the twelfth year of Henry VII. This in the thirteenth. 
The first voyage was at the sole expense of the adventurers. 
Of this the king bore the expense. The first voyage could 
allude to no former discovery. This alludes to an island 
which had been already discovered. To quote the passage, 
therefore, as evidence in favour of John Cabot's discovery, 
which has certainly been done by some modern writers, 
argues a rapid and superficial examination of its contents. 
Certainly Hakluyt does not cite it with this view ; but in- 
cludes it, on the contrary, among those portions of evidence, 
those testimonies, as he calls them, in which the sole glory 
of the earliest voyage to North America is given to Sebastian 
Cabot.* All this may be true, says the memoriahst, but it 
does not exculpate Hakluyt. I do not accuse him of citing 
the passage as a proof in favour of John Cabot — but of 
altering it so as to mislead other authors : he has " per- 
verted" the passage, and has suffered the evidence of his 
" guilty deed" to lie about, so as to furnish the means of 
his own conviction. Such is the charge advanced against 
Hakluyt ; and never, we will venture to say, was there a 

* Hakluyt'e Voyages, edition 1600, vol. iii. p. 4-9, inclusive. 
Ff 



338 APPENDIX. 

more unfounded accusation, as will appear when it come* 
to be examined, and yet the argument of the biographer is 
ingenious, and it requires some attention to detect its fallacy. 
The object in the whole matter, it will be observed, was 
twofold ; first, to show that Robert Fabyan, a contemporary 
author, ascribes the discovery of North America to Sebas- 
tian, and not to John Cabot ; and, secondly, to prove that Hak- 
luyt has been guilty of dishonestly perverting the passage 
from Fabyan communicated to him by Stow the antiquary. 
How then does he accomplish this ] In the first place, he 
goes to the earliest work of Hakluyt, published in 1582, 
where this writer gives for the first time the following note 
as to the discovery, which we quote verbatim from the work 
itself, now lying on our table : — 

" A Note of Sebastian Gabote's Voyage of Discoverie, 
taken out of an old Chronicle written by Robert Fabian, 
some time Alderman of London, which is in the custodie 
of John Stow, citizen, a diUgent searcher and preserver 
of antiquities. 

In the 13 This yeere the king (by means of a Venetian 
Kin's Henrie ^^i^h made himselfe very expert and cunning 
the VII. in knowledge of the circuite of the worlde, and 
1498. islands of the same, as by a carde and other 

demonstrations reasonable hee shewed) caused to man and 
victuall a shippe at Bristowe, to searche for an ilande, 
whiche hee saide hee knewe well was riche, and replenished 
with riche commodities. Which ship, thus manned and 
victualled at the kinge's costs, divers merchants of London 
ventured in her small stockes, being in her, as chiefe patrone, 
the said Venetian, and in the companie of the said shippe, 
^ . sayled also out of Bristowe three or foure small 

ships fraught with sleight and grosse merchan- 
dizes, as course cloth, caps, laces, points, and other trifles, 
Wm. Pur- ^^^ ^° departed from Bristowe in the beginning 
chasi Maior of May, of whom, in this Maior's time, returned 
of London, no tidings." 

Having given this quotation from Hakluyt's publication 
of 1582, the writer of the life next turns to the larger work 
of the same author, published in 1589, and he discovers 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 339 

that he has added to the sentence, as it stood in 1582, the 
words " one John Cabot." The passage in the narrative 
of 1589 stands thus : — " In the 13 yeere of King Henrie 
the VII. by means of one John Cabot, a Venetian, which 
made himself very expert," &c., the rest of the sentence 
being the same as in 1582. Here then, says he, is manifest 
interpolation and dishonesty ; the original passage from 
Fabyan has been altered ; Hakluyt, in 1589, does not give 
it in the same terms as in 1582. Before, however, arriving 
at so strong and uncharitable a conclusion, it must strike 
every reader that the original passage, either as it stands in 
Fabyan, or as it stood in the extract furnished by Stow from 
Fabyan, ought to be carefully examined. Till the passage, 
as it is given by Hakluyt, is compared with one or other of 
these, it is perfectly evident that no charge of alteration or 
interpolation can be made good against him. Now, the 
original chronicle of Fabyan, from which Stow took the 
passage, is lost — and the biographer does not pretend that 
he has discovered in the manuscripts of Hakluyt the original 
passage, as extracted by Stow, and sent to this writer — 
but he endeavours to supply it in a very singular manner. 
In speaking of Hakluyt's alleged perversion of the passage, 
as sent by Stow, he observes : — " Fortunately, we are not 
left to mere conjecture. In 1605 appeared Stow's own 
' Annals.' The simplicity and good faith of this writer are 
so well known, as well as his intense reverence for what- 
ever bore the stamp of antiquity, that we have no fear of 
his having committed what in his eyes would have been 
sacrilege, by changing one syllable of the original. Let it 
be remembered, then, that Hakluyt relies exclusively on what 
he obtained from Stow ; and in reading the following pas- 
sage from the Annals, we find what doubtless passed into 
Hakluyt's hands before it was submitted to his perilous 
correction. It occurs at p. 804 of the edition of 1605, and at 
p. 483 of that of 1631. ' This year one Sebastian Gaboto, 
a Genoa's sonne borne in Bristol, professing himself to be 
expert in the knowledge of the circuit of the world, and 
islands of the same, as by his charts and other reasonable 
demonstrations he shewed, caused the king to man and 
victual a ship,' &c. The rest corresponds with the passage 
in Hakluyt. * * * Thus," continues the biographer, 



340 APPENDIX. 

" we have the best evidence that the contemporary writer, 
whoever he may have been, made not the slightest allusion 
to the father. Bacon, Speed, Thuanus, &c. all furnish the 
same statement."* 

Such is the passage from the Memoir of Cabot ; and 
thus it appears that the whole of this attack upon Hakluyt 
rests upon a fact which the biographer imagines he has 
proved, but which in truth is nothing else than a piece of 
the merest and the most vague presumption — namely, that 
Stow furnished Hakluyt, in 1582, with an extract from 
Fabyan, which, when he himself proceeded, about eighteen 
years after, to compile his Annals from a long list of writers, 
whose names he has given us in his prefatory, pages, he so 
scrupulously copied, that we are entitled to take it as it 
stands in the said Annals, and argue upon it as the iden- 
tical passage contained in the lost chronicle of Fabyan. 

But this is not merely gratuitous assumption. There is, 
we think, strong evidence to show that Stow, in composing 
his various works, did not, upon the point in question, — 
the discovery of America, — consult the manuscript of 
Fabyan, although he affirms it to be in his possession, but 
in the multiplicity of his authorities had overlooked it alto- 
gether. The first Summary of Chronicles was published 
by this industrious antiquary in 1565. A new edition was 
given in 1573, and again another edition in 1598. His 
excellent work entitled a Survey of London and West- 
minster was also published in 1598 ; and it is a remarkable 
circumstance, and one which militates strongly against the 
hypothesis of the biographer, that although in the list of 
his authorities prefixed to the edition of his Chronicles in 
1573, and to the Survey of London, there is express men- 
tion of the manuscript by Fabyan, still, in neither of these 
works is there any allusion made, which we can discover, 
to the voyages of the Cabots, or the discovery of America. 
His work entitled Flores Historiarum, or Annals of Eng- 
land, was published in 1600, and here, for the first time, is 
the passage regarding the voyage to America introduced ; 
in which, as we have already seen, Sebastian Cabot is 
called " a Genoa's son." But it is to be recollected that 
Robert Fabyan was a contemporary of Sebastian Cabot , 

» Memoir of Cabot, p. 44. 



VINDICATION OY HAKLUYT. 341 

that he was a rich merchant and alderman of London ; 
and the probability is, that he was either personally ac- 
quainted with so illustrious a navigator, or at least enjoyed 
the best opportunities of rendering himself master of his 
history. It appears to us, therefore, exceedingly improb- 
able that Fabyan should have fallen into the error of de- 
scribing Sebastian Cabot as a Genoese's son, instead of 
the son of a Venetian. Now, it is a singular circumstance, 
that in the Chronicle of Thomas Lanquette, a work which 
Stow also mentions as in his possession, Sebastian is de- 
scribed as the son of a Genoese, and the discoverer of a 
part of the West Indies,* and this induces us to conjec- 
ture that the passage in question was taken by Stow, not 
from Fabyan's Chronicle, but from that work. Down to 
1598, he does not appear to have examined Fabyan's trea- 
tise upon the subject of America, or Cabot ; and becoming 
old (he was now in his seventy-sixth year), and failing in 
his memory, it appears extremely probable that he had con- 
tented himself with a reference to the volume of Lanquette. 
So far, therefore, from admitting the fact which has 
been hastily, and without any sufficient ground, assumed 
by the biographer, that the passage in Stow's Annals 
regarding Sebastian Cabot may be considered the very 
extract from Fabyan communicated to Hakluyt, we con- 
tend that a minute examination of Stow's historical labours 
proves that, in composing his Annals, he had omitted to 
consult the Chronicle of Fabyan, and had copied some less 
authentic writer — probably the Chronicle of Lanquette. 
What follows from this 1 — First, the whole elaborate accu- 
sation of guilty perversion of the extract from Fabyan, so 
unceremoniously advanced against Hakluyt, falls completely 
to the ground. Secondly, the biographer's supposed pas- 
sage from Fabyan, a contemporary, turns out to be nothing 
more than a quotation from Stow ; and consequently, the 
assertion that the former has described Sebastian Cabot as 
the sole projector and executor of the voyage in which 
North America was discovered, is perfectly unwarrantable. 
The original manuscript of Fabyan, as we have already 

* Barrett's Bristol, p. 185, 173. I take it for granted that this author 
must have seen the passage which he quotes ; but in the only edition 
of Lanquette's Chronicle which I have had an opportunity of examin- 
ing there is no such passage. 

Ff2 



342 APPENDIX. 

stated, is lost ; the original extract from it furnished by 
Stow to Hakluyt is also lost ; and without a minute exami- 
nation of these two documents, the biographer was not en- 
titled to wound the fair reputation of this excellent writer, to 
whom the history of naval discovery is under so many obli- 
gations, by charges without proof, and innuendoes arising 
mainly out of the errors which he himself has committed. 

But the biographer will perhaps contend that he has at 
least made out one fact against Hakluyt — namely, that in 
1589 he altered the passage from the fonn in which he gave it 
in 1582 ; and is not this, says he, a dishonest and guilty 
deed 1 To this we answer, — and we think it impossible for 
him to controvert the assertion, — that, admitting the fact, 
there is no guilt or dishonesty in the case. The vitiation 
of the text imputed here to Hakluyt may be considered 
either as a perversion of the real truth, historically con- 
sidered, or of the individual passage, or of both. 

First, then, it is to be remarked, that Hakluyt cannot be 
accused of dishonesty, historically speaking, because in 
the passages in question he has stated nothing but the 
truth. It has been already proved that the extract com- 
municated by Stow relates solely to the second voyage of 
1498, planned and fitted out by John Cabot the Yenetian, 
and conducted afterward by his son Sebastian ; and the 
alteration of the note, from the words " a Venetian," used 
in 1582, to the words " one John Cabot, a Venetian," used 
in 1589, only makes it speak with more clearness and accu- 
racy. But, in the second place, Hakluyt, says the biogra- 
pher, has perverted and altered a quotation. There might 
be some appearance of plausibility in this accusation, if 
Hakluyt had given the passage in dispute as a quotation, 
and had thus bound himself down to the common usage 
which compels an author in such a case to insert it word 
for word. But he does not do so. He warns the reader 
that he is perusing, not a quotation, but a " note made up 
by him from an extract communicated by Stow, and taken 
out of the latter part of Robert Fabyan's Chronicle, not 
hitherto printed ;" and having done so, he considered him- 
self at liberty to correct that note, by inserting in it any 
additional information which he had acqu.ired. In 1582, he 
thought that the words, "a Genoa's son, born in Bristol," 
could not apply to Sebastian Cabot, with whom they were 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 343 

coupled, and he inserts the words, " a Venetian," dropping 
the name altogether. In 1589, he had probably become 
acquainted with the second patent, which ascribed the plan 
of the expedition solely to John Cabot ; and he therefore 
added to his note the words, " John Cabot, a Venetian," 
where he speaks of the person who had caused the king to 
man and victual a ship. Even, therefore, if we were to 
admit, which we do not, that a discrepancy had been made 
out between the passages ^n Hakluyt and the real extract 
from the Chronicle of Robert Fabyan, we should be en- 
titled to repel any accusations against his honesty, founded 
upon a basis so extremely erroneous. 

The memorialist now comes to the consideration of the 
proof as to the " personal agency of the father in the dis- 
covery of North America, derived from the inscription on 
the map cut by Clement Adams, which Hakluyt states is 
to be seen in her majesty's Privy Gallery at Westminster, 
and in many other ancient merchants' houses."* And 
here he commences his examination by another unfair 
innuendo against this writer. " We approach the statement 
of Hakluyt," says he, " with a conviction that he would 
not hesitate for a moment to interpolate the name of John 
Cabot, if he thought that thereby was secured a better cor- 
respondence with the original patent." I have convicted 
him (it is thus he argues) of interpolating the quotation 
furnished by Stow from Fabyan, and there is a strong pre- 
sumption he would not hesitate to alter the inscription also. 
" It would, certainly," he remarks, " require less audacity 
to associate here the name of the father, as it is found in the 
patent, than to do that of which Hakluyt has already been 
convicted."t To this indirect insiuuation it may be calmly 
repUed, that, as the first attempt to affix guilt upon Hak- 
luyt has been shown to he a total failure, the inscription 
ought to be received from his hands with perfect confidence 
that we read it in his work exactly as it was copied by him 
from the original map of Sebastian Cabot, cut by Clement 
Adams, From the manner in which it is given, first in the 
original Latin, and then translated, it professes to be an 
exact quotation ; and even were Hakluyt as guilty a person 
as the biographer represents him, it might be contended 

* See the proof stated. Supra, p. 16 t Memoir of Cabot, p. 48. 



344 APPENDIX. 

that he would have paused before he committed an act of 
interpolation, of which the original in the Queen's Gallery, 
and in many ancient merchants' houses, must have in- 
stantly convicted him. 

But to proceed. Having thus prepared us to expect an 
audacious alteration, the biographer endeavours to show- 
that those persons who had seen Sebastian Cabot's charts 
and maps, introduce no allusion to the father, and he leaves 
the reader to make the inevitable inference against Hakluyt's 
honesty. This writer has quoted an inscription on Sebas- 
tian Cabot's map, which attributes the discovery to John 
Cabot. But Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who had seen Sebas- 
tian's charts, makes no allusion to the father; and Richard 
Willes, who speaks familiarly of the map of this navigator, 
does not mention John ; therefore it is left to the reader 
silently to infer that Hakluyt may have interpolated the 
name of the father. A plain statement of the fact will 
put all this down in an instant : — Hakluyt has narrated in 
the clearest terms that the map to which he alludes, and 
from which he copies the inscription, was engraved by 
Clement Adams ; and the terms of the inscription show 
that it (the inscription) was added by the artist. Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert, on the contrary, just as clearly states, that 
the documents to which he alludes, are " charts of Sebastian 
Cabot, which are to be seen in the queen majesty's Privy 
Gallery at Whitehall," — evidently meaning the original 
charts drawn by this seaman, and presented to the queen ;* 
and Willes does not mention the engraved map at all, but 
speaks of a table of Sebastian Cabot, which the father of 
Lady Warwick had at Cheynies.f The argument, there- 
fore, or rather the unfavourable inference created in the 
mind of the reader by the biographer, which derives its 
force from the supposition that Sir Humphrey Gilbert and 
Richard Willes refer to the same document as Hakluyt, 
namely, the engraved map by Clement Adams, falls com- 
pletely to the ground. If there had been any account of 
the first discovery on the charts alluded to by Gilbert, and 
the " table" mentioned by Willes, and in this account the 
father's name had not appeared, there might be some pre- 

* Hakluvt, vol. iii. p. 16. 

t History of Travel in tbe West and East Indies, p. 232. Hakluyt, 
VOL iii. p. 26, 26. 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 345 

sumption against the elder Cabot ; but the writer of the 
Memoir does not pretend there was any such account or 
inscription on the charts and the table ; and to infer, from 
the silence of Gilbert and Willes, either that Hakluyt had 
altered the inscription, or that John Cabot could not have 
been the original discoverer, is a remarkable instance of 
vague and inconclusive reasoning. 

This is the proper place to notice an extraordinary error, 
or rather series of errors, fallen into by the biographer, re- 
garding this same " extract." It is described by Hakluyt 
as an " extract taken out of the map of Sebastian Cabot, cut 
by Clement Adams, concerning his discovery of the West 
Indies, which is to be seen in her majestie's Privy Gallery 
at Westminster, and in many other ancient merchants' 
houses." Clearer words, one would think, could scarcely 
be employed to express the fact that a map engraved by 
Adams hung in the Privy Gallery at Westminster, from 
which Hakluyt, who was much about court, copied the ex- 
tract or inscription which he has given at p. 6. Yet the 
biographer has committed the singular blunder of supposing 
that it was the extract from the map, and not the map itself^ 
which was hung up in the Privy Gallery at Westminster, 
and that it may be inferred that Hakluyt had never seen 
the original map. " From the stress," says he, " laid by 
Hakluyt and Purchas on the extract hung up in the Privy 
Gallery at Whitehall, we may infer that they had never 
seen the original map."* In this sentence there occurs a 
second error, in imagining that both Hakluyt and Purchas 
refer to the same document. The allusion by Purchas, t 
however, is to one totally different. This author refers, not 
to any extract taken from the map cut by Clement Adams, 
but to " the words of a great map in his majesty's Privy 
Gallery, of which Sebastian Cabot is often therein called 
the author, and his picture is therein drawn," which map, 
Purchas adds in the margin, " some say was taken out of 
Sir Sebastian Cabot's map by Clement Adams ;" a sentence 
proving, beyond a doubt, that these writers allude to differ- 
ent works, — Hakluyt to the map of Clement Adams, Pur- 
chas to a later one, supposed by some authors to be copied 
from it. Lastly, in a succeeding sentence,! the author of 

* Memoir of Cabot, p. 52. t Purchas, vol. iii, p. 807. 

X Memoir of Cabot, p. 52. 



346 APPENDIX. 

the Memoir, when he hazards the conjecture that the map 
by Adams was executed after Cabot's death, and therefore 
without any communication from him, again widely errs 
from the truth ; for had he consulted Purchas he would 
have found that the map by Adams was published in 1549.* 
Thus, in a sentence which occupies the short space of 
seven hues, three errors, and these of no trivial importance, 
are committed. The first error is material ; because it in- 
evitably leads the reader to believe that Hakluyt is only 
giving an extract from an extract, whereas he is giving an 
extract from an original which he had seen. The second 
error is also important ; because it would induce us to infer 
that Purchas and Hakluyt resolve into one- and the same 
witness, whereas Purchas quotes a separate and additional 
testimony ; for, it is to be observed, that, on a map en- 
graved probably some time in the reign of James VI., there 
was copied the same inscription as in the early map in 
1549 ; from which we are entitled to conclude, that in the 
interval nothing had transpired to invalidate the truth of the 
inscription. Lastly, the third error is most material of all ; 
because its efTect is to lead us to consider the Latin inscrip- 
tion copied by Hakluyt from the map by Clement Adams as 
of little or no weight in evidence, instead of which it is, as 
has already been shown in the text,t as nearly as possible 
equivalent to a declaration of Sebastian Cabot himself. 

The laboured endeavour to get rid of the overpowering 
evidence of the inscription, by impeaching the accuracy and 
integrity of the copy furnished by Hakluyt, is thus singu- 
larly unsuccessful ; and having failed in this point, the 
author of the Life of Cabot passes over altogether the 
proof which it contains. This, we think, may be taken for 
a silent admission that, if correctly given, it proves that 
John Cabot was the discoverer ; and we shall not fatigue 
the reader by a repetition of the arguments given in the 
text, only reminding him that it is there shown that the 
inscription was written, probably from the information com- 
municated, either by Sebastian or by some persons who 
accompanied the voyage, and that the map where it occurs 
must have been often seen by this navigator. 

In his examination of the proofs of the personal agency 

* Purchas, vol. iii. p. 807. t Supra, p. 17 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 347 

of John Cabot, the biographer now arrives at the appear- 
ance of his name in the letters-patent granted by the king. 
These interesting documents, from their priority of date 
and the importance of their evidence, every impartial in 
quirer would, we think, have ranked first ; but he at once 
assigns them the last place, and passes them very lightly 
over. With the substance of these royal letters the reader 
is already acquainted ;* and it is here sufficient to repeat 
that the commission, in virtue of which the first voyage of 
1497 was undertaken, during which North America was 
discovered, is granted to John Cabot and his three sons, 
while the second commission of 1498 is not only granted to 
John Cabot alone, but, alluding to the voyage already made, 
describes him as the sole discoverer, " giving him permis- 
sion to lead his ships to the land and isles of late found by 
the said John in the king's name, and by his command." 
To escape from this clear and unanswerable assertion in a 
document whose authenticity is higher than that of any 
other which can be produced, the memorialist, trembling 
for his favourite Sebastian, is driven to some very desperate 
and amusing expedients. He first asserts, that the appear- 
ance of the father's name in the first commission or patent 
does not prove that he embarked in either of the expeditions. 
Now, undoubtedly, if the first patent stood alone, the 
father's name in that deed would not conclusively prove 
that he conducted the first voyage, although a strong pre- 
sumption that he did so might fairly be founded upon it ; 
but it is evident the two patents, in estimating the evidence, 
must be taken together, and how does the biographer get 
rid of the second, which, in language neither to be evaded 
nor misunderstood, distinctly asserts the fact of the dis- 
covery by the said John, and by John only ; for no other 
name but that of the father appears in the deed ? The 
extraordinary theory by which he attempts to elude its 
evidence will best be given in his own words. '• The 
second patent," says he, " is to the father alone. If we 
seek a reason for this departure from the original arrange- 
ment, it may be conjectured that some of the sons chose 
to give a different direction to a parental advance and 
their personal exertions ; and that the head of the family 

* Supra, p. 15, IS. 



348 APPENDIX. 

thought fit to retain subject to his own discretionary die 
posal the proposed investment of his remaining capital. 
It is said that one of the sons settled at Venice, and the 
other at Genoa. The recital of the discovery by the father 
would of course be stated, under the circumstances, as 
the consideration of the second patent in his favour. 
Another reason for the introduction of the father's name 
concurrently at first with his sons', and afterward exclu- 
sively, may perhaps be found in the wary character of the 
king, whose own pecuniary interests were involved in the 
result. He might be anxious thus to secure the responsi- 
bility of the wealthy Venetian for the faithful execution of 
the terms of the patent, and finally think it. better to have 
him solely named rather than commit powers, on their face 
assignable, to young men who had no stake in the country, 
and who were not likely to make it even a fixed place of 
residence. On the whole, there may at least be a doubt 
whether the father really accompanied the expedition."* It 
is surely quite unnecessary to attempt a serious reply to 
this singular passage, which, advancing from one step of 
an improbable and unsupported hypothesis to another, lands 
the reader at last in that conclusion of outrageous skepti- 
cism which has just been quoted. The words of the second 
commission state a simple fact, " that the land and isles 
were discovered by John Cabot.^^ The biographer, in reply, 
first talks discursively and at some length on the motives 
which induced the sons, Lewis, Sanche2i, and Sebastian, to 
■withdraw a capital which there is no proof they ever ad- 
vanced, — subjects of little moment, — and he then at once 
gets rid of the stubborn fact, that John Cabot is named 
as the " sole discoverer," by the incidental remark, that 
this would, of course, be stated as the ground of the 
second patent, — a species of reply which irresistibly re- 
minds us of the celebrated mode of getting rid of any diflB- 
culty "by a concatenation." We leave the reader to form 
liis own conclusion from the words of the commission, with 
no anxiety as to the result. 

It is asserted that Hakluyt is guilty of perversion when 
he describes John Cabot as " very expert and cunning in 
the knowledge of the circuit of the world, and islands of the 

* Memoir of Cabot, p. 60, 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 349 

same, as by a sea-card, and other demonstrations reasonable, 
he shewed;"* and in the same breath the biographer pro- 
ceeds to arraign Campbell, Macpherson, and Barrow of 
folly, because they speak of him as a scientific and able sea- 
man, there being no proof that he was any thing else than 
a merchant who dwelt in England.! Now when Hakluyt, in 
a writing of unquestionable authenticity (the first royal com- 
mission just quoted), found John Cabot intrusted with the 
command of a squadron of five ships, which was empowered 
to sail on a voyage of discovery to all countries and seas 
of the east, west, and north, he certainly cannot be ac- 
cused of having committed any grievous infringement upon 
truth or probability when he described him as a seaman ; 
and when, in another document of almost equal authority 
(the inscription on the map by Clement Adams), he ob- 
served ii stated that he, along with his son Sebastian, were 
the first who discovered North America, are we to be told 
that he was guilty of excessive exaggeration, when he drew 
the inference which every discerning and impartial mind 
would be inclined to derive from the same facts, that the 
author of such a discovery must have been an excellent 
navigator and cosmographer 1 Nor is it a fair mode of 
reasoning to accuse Campbell and Barrow as guilty of a 
thousand absurdities, when they describe John Cabot as an 
" accomplished seaman, a skilful pilot, or an intrepid navi- 
gator."t These writers, it is to be recollected, had before 
them the letters-patent in Rymer, and the inscription by 
Adams, instruments which had in no way been perverted ; 
and from an examination of these they arrived at the con« 
elusion, to which every reader is inevitably led, that he who 
possessed the inventive mind to plan this new course to 
India by the north-west, who had in person commanded the 
expedition and successfully achieved the discovery, must 
have been, both as a practical and a scientific navigator, a 
man of no ordinary character and acquirements. 

It is difficult, within the limits to which we must confine 
these remarks, to reply to the various accusations against 
Hakluyt which are scattered throughout the pages of this 

* Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 9. t Memoir of Cabot, p. 46, 47, 60, 51. 

t/frtd. p.46,50,51. 



350 APPENDIX. 

Memoir ; besides, we do not profess to write a full vindica- 
tion of that excellent author. He is arraigned of ignorance 
and carelessness as a translator, of a want of integrity in 
regard to the sense of his original, and of appropriating to 
himself passages from other authors without acknowledg- 
ment. The gravest accusation, that of wilfully altering the 
sense of his original, has been satisfactorily answered 
already ; but we venture to say that few who are acquainted 
with his amusing and instructive volumes will not be aston- 
ished at the charge of plagiarism. A conscientious and 
even tedious scrupulosity in giving the names of every indi- 
vidual from whom he has derived his information is one of 
the most striking features of his work. The third volume 
of the second edition of his voyages happens to be now on 
the table before us : it consists of about 158 separate docu- 
ments, and we will venture to say, that of these there is 
not one upon which the biographer can support a charge 
of any thing approaching to serious and premeditated plagia 
rism ; not one in which, if the author's name is known, it 
is not anxiously mentioned ; or, if it is unknown, where the 
anonymous paper is not given in such a way that it cannot 
possibly be attributed to the compiler himself. Even the 
two instances in this volume quoted against him by the 
biographer do not in fair reasoning form an exception. 

No one who has read Hakluyt's preface will be disposed 
to think with severity of the slight alterations which, with 
the honest intention of presenting the whole truth before 
his reader, he has occasionally introduced into the abstracts, 
notes, and translations, which form the great body of his 
work. His earnest desire, as he himself declares, " was to 
adjust the displaced and scattered limbs, as well of ancient 
and late voyages by sea as of travels by land, and traffic 
of merchandise by both, into one regular body ; restoring 
each divided and dislocated member to its natural order and 
symmetry, iind by the help of geography and chronology, 
the sun and moon, or right and left eye of all history, refer- 
ring each particular narration to its due time and place." 
That in accomplishing this laudable object he has sometimes 
used rather undue liberties with his documents, may be 
admitted ; but even in the most remarkable of these instances 
of alleged.mistranslation and interpolation which the biogra- 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 351 

pher has brought against him, the passages are first accu- 
rately given in the original language, a mode of proceeding 
which completely establishes the honesty of his intentions. 
It is vain to accuse of fraudulent interpolation a writer 
who first warns the reader that he must be prepared to find 
some of the translations of the documents which he has 
presented partially transposed, and corrected by the help 
of geography and chronology, and who carefully quotes, in 
the same page, the passages in the original, before he pre- 
sents them in the shape which he believes consistent with 
truth. If this be fraud, it possesses a very singular charac- 
ter ; it is fraud which courts detection ; it is forgery, studi- 
ously placing in the hands of all readers the documents by 
which its iniquity may be traced and established. 

With regard to the attack made upon this writer for his 
ignorance and mistranslation, the author of the Life of 
Cabot, we think, in considering Hakluyt's voluminous 
labours, consisting of three folio volumes, might have been 
disposed to pardon a few inaccuracies of this nature. They 
will insinuate themselves, however anxious we may be to 
avoid them, into all human productions ; and he who has 
spent most time in works requiring multifarious research, 
and the painful examination of ancient authorities, will be 
the most disposed to view with lenient eyes the errors of 
such as are similarly occupied. If the biographer will turn 
to his own Memoir (p. 240) he will find in Pasquiligi's de- 
scription of the captives the following sentence : " Hanno 
signata la faza in modo de Tndiani : chi da vi., chi da viii., 
chi da manco segni." Their faces they have punctured like 
Indians', some with six, some with eight, some with fewer 
marks. In the Memoir, it is thus translated, " They punc- 
ture the face, like the Indians, exhibiting six, eight, or even 
more marks.'''' Bo not let the biographer imagine that we 
have quoted this erroneous version of a very simple passage 
with the view of accusing him of ignorance, or that there is 
the slightest intention of insinuating that he did not know 
that the four Words " chi da manco segni" meant " some 
with fewer marks." The oversight is pointed out as an 
example of the occasional mistranslations or mistakes into 
which, with every desire to be accurate, even a well-informed 
writer will occasionally fall, that he may be inclined to ex- 
tend to the labours of others that charity of criticism with 



352 APPENDIX. 

which he would wish that every Uberal mind should regard 
his own.* 

The author of the Life of Cabot was perfectly entitled to 
maintain the theory that Sebastian, the son, and not John 
Cabot, the father, was the discoverer of North America ; 
but he was not entitled to adopt, what we must denominate 
the disingenuous method of making an impression upon the 
reader's mind by silently dropping the name of the latter 
out of passages where, if he had stated the whole truth, he 
ought to have mentioned both. Thus, at page 1 74 we find 
this remark : " At his return [Sebastian] Cabot settled in 
Bristol, ***** fifty-three years after the date 
of his first commission from Henry VII." Again, page 
222, we find this notice : " Sixty-one years had now elapsed 
since the date of the first commission from Henry VII. to 
Sebastian Cabot, and the powers of nature must have been 
absolutely wearied out." Again, page 235, we have another 
more glaring example of this determination to keep the 
father entirely out of view : " The bare mention of these 
dates will establish the impossibility that he could have been 
ignorant of the great discoveries of Cabot [it is Sebastian 
he is speaking of], which, commencing at the point seen on 
the 24th June, 1497, had extended over the ' londe and isle' 
recited in the second patent." In the first and second of 
these sentences John Cabot's name is entirely suppressed, 
although the commission spoken of was directed to him, 
along with his three sons ; and in the last, the entire 
merit of the discovery is ascribed to Sebastian, at the mo- 
ment the biographer is quoting the words of the second 
commission, which positively attributes it to John. 

Allusion has already been shortly made to the " evidence" 
contained in the inscription upon an ancient portrait of 
Sebastian Cabot ; but we must be allowed, for a moment, 
to add a few words upon this proof, which is very important 
and conclusive. There is now in existence a portrait of 
this navigator, by Holbein, for a minute history of which we 
refer the reader to the Appendix to the Memoir of Cabot. f 

* In the same passage from Pasquiligi, another oversight occurs : 
" Nela terra loro non hanno ferro : ma faimo cortelli de alcune pietre." 
Memoir of Cabot, p. 240. " In their country they do not possess iron, 
but they make knives of particular kinds of stones." The biographer 
translates cortelli swords. 

t Memoir of Cabot, Appendix, Letter F. p. 323. 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 353 

It is sufficient for our purpose to remark, that it is acknow- 
ledged to be an original, for which Sebastian sat to the 
artist, and which, in the time of Purchas, hung in the 
Privy Gallery at Whitehall. Upon this picture is the fol- 
lowing inscription : " Effigies Seb. Caboti Angli, filii Jo- 
hannis Caboti Veneti Militis Aurati, Primi Inventoris TerrsB 
Novas sub Henrico VII. Angliae Rege." It is evident, by 
the common rules of grammatical construction, that the 
words Militis Aurati, Piimi Inventoris Terrse Novae sub 
Henrico VII. Angliae Rege, apply exclusively to John Cabot ; 
and if so, they contain a positive assertion that John was 
the first discoverer of North America. Now, the authen- 
ticity of the picture being undoubted, the inscription fur- 
nishes as convincing a piece of evidence as could well be 
conceived. And again, it may be fairly argued, that the 
circumstance of the words Militis Aurati being found united 
with the name of John Cabot, by which it is proved that the 
king had conferred on him, and not on Sebastian, the hon- 
our of knighthood, affijrds the strongest presumption that 
it was John who was the original discoverer. 

This remark leads us, in the last place, to expose an ex- 
traordinary series of errors committed by the biographer, 
in relation to this Latin inscription on the picture. He has 
accused Dr. Henry, Dr. Campbell, and the authors of the 
Biographia Britannica of an absurd misconception, in ima- 
gining that the words Militis Aurati indicate that John 
Cabot had been knighted. But it is justice to let him speak 
for himself. He first demonstrates that the words Miles 
Auratus cannot possibly apply to the son Sebastian, after 
which he proceeds thus : — " The point being thus clear 
with regard to the son, other writers have assumed, as a 
matter of course, that the distinction (of knighthood) must 
have been conferred on John Cabot." " Accordingly, 
Campbell, in his Lives of the Admirals, has an article en- 
titled Sir John Cabot. Dr. Henry informs us, in his His- 
tory of Britain, vol. vi. p. 618, that John Cabot was gra- 
ciously received and knighted on his return, and the same 
statement is repeated in the Biographia Britannica." " To 
the utter confusion,^'' he continues, " of all these grave au- 
thorities, a moment's consideration will show that the ivords 
relied on do in themselves prove that knighthood had not been 
conferred. It is scarcely necessary to follow up tliis sug- 
Gg2 



354 APPENDIX. 

gestion, by staling, that in reference to one who had re- 
ceived that honour, they would have been., not Militis Aurati, 
but Equitis Aurati. Though the term Miles is sometimes 
appUed in old documents even to peers, yet, as a popular 
designation, the language of the inscription negatives the 
idea of knighthood. In the very works immediately con- 
nected with the subject of the present volume, the appro- 
priate phrase perpetually occurs. Thus, Eques Auratus is 
used to designate Sir Humphrey Gilbert (Hakluyt, vol. iii. 
p. 137) ; Sir Hugh Willoughby, ib. p. 142 ; Sir Martin 
Frobisher, ib. p. 142 ; Sir Francis Drake, ib. p. 143. In 
the dedication of look's translation of Peter Martyr, it is in 
like manner used, and we see it at this moment on the ' Ef- 
figies' of Sir Walter Raleigh, prefixed to the first edition of 
his History of the World. It will probably be deemed very 
superfluous to refer to Selden's Titles of Honour (p. 830) 
for a confirmation of what has been stated. The weight of 
censure must fall on Purchas, who was originally guilty of 
the blunder.''''* 

One would have thought that the writer must have been 
very sure of the ground on which he stood before he ven- 
tured to assume so lofty and decisive a tone, — and yet we are 
altogether at a loss for expressions which may mark cour- 
teously, and yet strongly, the combination of error, igno- 
rance, and absurdity presented by this extraordinary sen- 
tence. He first argues, that the words Miles Auratus are 
never used to denote a knight ; and, secondly, that where 
they are used, they " do in themselves prove that knight- 
hood had not been conferred." Now, fortunately, the biog- 
rapher allows that Sir Humphrey Gilbert was a knight, in- 
deed he is one of his own examples of Equites Aurati. 
Keeping this in mind, we request him to turn to Holland's 
celebrated and well-known work, the Heroologia Anglise, 
containing the engraved portraits of the most eminent Eng- 
lish warriors, navigators, statesmen, and ecclesiastical re- 
formers, who flourished in England from 1500 to 1620. 
He will there find, at p. 6.5, vol. i., a beautiful head of Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, and around it the following inscription, 
— "HuMFRiDus Gtlbertus, Miles Auratus." Do these 
words prove here that knighthood had not been conferred 1 

* Memoir of Cabot, p. 183. , 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 355 

Again, we beg him to turn to another engraving in the 
same work, the portrait of the celebrated Sir Richard Gren- 
ville, of whose knighthood there is not the smallest doubt. 
It will be found at page 85 of the first volume of Holland's 
work, and it is thus inscribed around the margin, — " Rich- 
ARDUs Grenvilus, Mil. Aur. :" (Miles Auratus.) But the 
biographer has quoted the famous Sir Francis Drake, as 
illustrating his argument. He points triumphantly to him 
as an undoubted knight, being styled Eques Auratus, and 
to whom, therefore, the words Miles Auratus could not pos- 
sibly be applied. Once more, we beg him to turn to the 
Heroologia, vol. i. page 105. He will there see a striking 
portrait of Drake, with his hand resting on the globe, and 
these words round the margin of the print, — " Franciscus 
Drake, Miles Auratus." One other example may be 
given of the common use of those words to denote knight- 
hood, which, according to the positive assertion of our 
author, are never found together, and which, if used, prove 
that this honour had not been conferred. It is the first 
sentence in Holland's Life of Sir John Harrington, Heroo- 
logia, page 133. " Joannes Harington filius natu maximus 
Clarissimi Militis Jacobi Haringtoni de Exton, in Comitatu 
Rutlandie, Equestri seu Militis Aurati dignitate multis 
abhinc annis a beatissimse memoriae Regina Elizabetha 
insignitus fuit." It need hardly be pointed out to the intel- 
ligent reader, that this brief sentence of four lines, in its use 
of the word Miles by itself to denote knighthood, and Miles 
Auratus, as synonymous with the terms dignitas Equestris, 
overturns the whole argument of the biographer, who not 
only contends that the expression Miles Auratus is never 
used as descriptive of knighthood, but that, except in an- 
cient deeds, the single word Miles never occurs. Had he 
taken the trouble to consult any friend who possessed even 
a superficial acquaintance with the language in which the 
inscription was written, he must have discovered that the 
words Eques Auratus, Miles Auratus, Eques by itself, and 
Miles by itself, are used indiscriminately in modern Latin 
to denote knighthood ; and that the " absurd misconcep- 
tion" imputed to others existed nowhere but in his own 
ideas. 

But even had we not been able to quote such unanswer- 
able instances as Humphrey, Grenville, Drake, and Har- 



356 APPENDIX. 

rington, it is singular that it should not have occurred to 
this writer that the words Miles Auratus upon John Cabot's 
portrait must necessarily have had some meaning, — that 
they must either be literally translated, or be understood to 
express knighthood. Now this, last he will not allow them 
to denote ; and the only meaning he affixes to them is, that 
they " negative the idea of knighthood, and prove that such 
an honour had not been conferred." We are driven then 
to a literal interpretation ; and it is impossible for him, ac- 
cording to the principle he has laid down, to give any other 
translation than this : " The portrait of Sebastian Cabot, 
Englishman, son of John Cabot the Venetian, a golden sol- 
dier, but by no means a knight." Such is the singular and 
amusing interpretation which, had he weighed his own 
assertion for a moment, or had he exerted that spirit of dili- 
gent, accurate, and extensive research (we are using his 
own words) to which he lays claim,* the biographer must 
have found it necessary to adopt. These various errors 
have been pointed out with no other feehng than a desire 
of showing the recklessness of the attack upon Campbell, 
Henry, and the authors of the Biographia Britannica. It is 
difficult, indeed, to repress a smile when we compare the 
bitterness and severity of the criticism with the extreme 
ignorance of the critic ; and in taking leave of this subject, 
we may be permitted to hope that the recollection of his 
chapter on the words Miles Auratus Avill induce the cham- 
pion of Sebastian Cabot to revise his Latin, and to be more 
lenient to the real or supposed mistakes of his predecessors 
and contemporaries. 

It has been shown, we trust, to the satisfaction of every 
one who will impartially weigh the evidence, that John 
Cabot was the discoverer of North America ; and it is satis- 
factory to find that all that may be called the contemporary 
proofs, — the first commission in Rymer, the brief narrative 
on the map by Clement, the words of the second commis- 
sion, and the inscription on the picture, — confirm the con- 
clusion that this Venetian was entitled to the honour. Be- 
fore, however, concluding these remarks, we may add a 
single word on the testimony of later authi ^s. Fabyan, or 
the contemporary writer, for he is spoket of under both 

* Introduction to Memoir of Cabot, p. 1. 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 357 

denominations, Bacon, De Thou, and Speed, are all cited by 
the biographer as exclusively in favour of the title of Se- 
bastian. " We have the best evidence," says he (p. 44), 
" that the contemporary writer, whoever he may have been, 
made not the slightest allusion to the father. Bacon, Speed, 
Thuanus, &c. all furnish the same statement." Now, with 
regard to Fabyan, in his printed Chronicle there is no allu- 
sion, either to the original discovery on the 24th June, 1497, 
or to the subsequent voyi.ge of Sebastian Cabot in 1498 ; 
and as to the supposed manuscript Chronicle which is 
stated by Stow to have been in his possession, it appears to 
have perished, and we have no mode of ascertaining its 
import, except through the note of Hakluyt, which, as far 
as it goes, is nowise against the claim of John Cabot. Nay, 
even granting that (to the contrary of which we have strong 
proof) in Stow's Chronicle, published in 1605, occurs the 
very passage of the lost manuscript of Fabyan, and that in 
this passage Sebastian Cabot, a Genoa's son, born in Bris- 
tol, is alone mentioned ; still the reader is alr^^ady aware of 
the conclusive answer, namely, that the passage relates, not 
to the first voyage of 1497, but to the second voyage of 
1498, of which all are agreed that Sebastian Cabot had the 
command. But another evidence in favour of Sebastian as 
the original discoverer is said to be found in Lord Bacon's 
Life of Henry VIL We can scarcely persuade ourselves 
that any one who makes this assertion can have attentively 
studied the remark in question, so evidently does it allude, 
we think, where it mentions Sebastian, to the second voyage 
of 1498, and not to the original voyage of 1497. That 
Bacon was aware this was not the first discovery, and that 
he had a vague kn>.<wledge of a prior voyage, in which the 
continent of America was originally found out, is evident 
from this sentence : " ^.nd there had been before that time 
a discovery of some lands, which they took to be islands, 
and were, indeed, the continent of America towards the 
north-west." Again, as if anxious to warn the reader as to 
there having been a prior discovery, he says, "But this 
Gabato bearing the king in hand that he would find out an 
island endued with rich commodities, procured him to man 
and victual a ship at Bristol, for the discovery of that 
island, with whom ventured also three small ships of Lon- 
don merchants, fraught with some gross and slight wares, 



358 APPENDIX. 

fit for commerce with barbarous people."* It is evident 
that Lord Bacon is here making use of the passage in Stow, 
employing, with some slight alterations, its very words. 
So far, however, from containing a proof that the merit of 
the original discovery belongs to Sebastian, it warns the 
reader that the continent had already been found in some 
prior voyage, although no name is given, and the date is 
left uncertain. The observation of the biographer, there- 
fore, that Bacon makes no allusion to the father, is literally 
correct ; but the inference drawn from it, that therefore 
Bacon's testimony goes to support the claim of Sebastian 
as the original discoverer, is completely excluded when the 
passage comes to be narrowly examined. 

As to De Thou, this great writer, so far as we have 
looked through his voluminous historical work, contains no 
passage upon the subject of either voyage ; and the same 
observation applies to such e.litit;ns of Grafton, Holinshed, 
Hall, and Harding as we have had an opportunity of con- 
sulting. It has been already remarked that the sentence 
quoted from Stow, which the biographer erroneously con- 
ceives to offer a proof that Sebastian had the sole charge of 
the voyage of 1497, in which the discovery was made, 
relates solely to the second voyage of 1498. t With regard 
to Speed, whom he also quotes as, along with Bacon and 
De Thou, making no allusion to the father, the same 
answer strictly applies, — the only voyage of which he takes 
notice being the second, in 1498, as is distinctly fixed by 
his observation that it took place after the apprehension of 
Perkin Warbeck.t It is very evident, however, that the 
biographer was bound to show that Bacon, Stow, and 
Speed had given an account of the first voyage of 1497, in 
which the discovery was made, and in that account had in- 
troduced no allusion to the father, before he was entitled, 
from their omission, to draw any argument against him. In 
this, however, he has totally failed. 

The fact is certainly remarkable that, while in contem- 
porary documents of unquestionable authority we find con- 

* Bacon's Henry VII. in Kennet, vol. i. p. 624. 

t Stow's Chronicles by Howe, edition 1631, p. 481. 

i Speed's History of Great Britain, p. 744, edition 1511. In the edition 
of Speed's work published in 1632, there is no mention of the voyage of 
either of the Cabots 



VINDICATION OF HAKLUYT. 359 

vmcing proof of the discovery having been made by John 
Cabot, in none of the English annalists or historians who 
treat of the reign of Henry VII. do we see any account of 
the first voyage, while many of them have distinctly recorded 
the circumstances of the second. But of this it is not 
difficult to discover the reason. The first voyage was a 
private adventure or experiment by John Cabot, and proba- 
bly little known or talked of beyond the city of Bristol. It 
was undertaken at the expense, not of the crown, but of the 
individual ; and after having made the discovery, Cabot 
appears to have returned at once without exploring the 
coast, to make preparations for a voyage on a more extended 
scale. When he reached England, in the month of August, 
1497, being shortly after the commencement of the thirteenth 
year of Henry's reign, he found the sovereign and his king- 
dom in a state of extreme anxiety and confusion. The 
king was engrossed with an invasion of the Scots, with a 
formidable rebellion in Cornwall, and a new rising in favour 
of Warbeck, the leader of which threatened to pluck the 
crown from his head and give it to that adventurer, who, 
early in September, had landed from Ireland and assumed 
the title of Richard IV. It was upon these great events, — 
the attacks of his enemies, and the measures adopted to 
defeat them, — that the minds of the contemporary writers, 
and of the succeeding chroniclers and annaUsts, were nat- 
urally concentrated ; and, engrossed with them, they paid 
httle attention to the discovery of a private merchant of 
Bristol. It is for this reason, we apprehend, that we in 
vain look in Fabyan and in Stow for any detailed account 
or even incidental mention, of the discovery of 1497. 

The circumstances, however, under which the second 
voyage, in 1498, took place, which all are agreed was con- 
ducted solely by Sebastian Cabot, were completely different. 
It was undertaken at the expense of the king, who furnished 
the ships ; it contemplated a scheme of settlement and 
colonization, in which all the ardent and enterprising spirits 
in the nation were invited to co-operate. Many, there is 
reason to believe, did embark in the undertaking ; and, 
instead of merely landing on the island and returning home, 
the voyage embraced the discovery of a large tract of coast, 
till that period unknown. If to this we add the considera- 
tion that, about the time when the second expedition must 



360 APPENDIX. 

have returned to Bristol, the kingdom was in profound peace,* 
both at home and abroad, it will not be difficult to understand 
why this voyage should constitute the event upon which the 
attention of our national annalists has been exclusively 
fixed ; while the former, in which the discovery was un- 
doubtedly made, has been passed over by them altogether. 
But although chroniclers and historians may fall into many 
errors of omission, the original muniments of the country 
and the period remain ; and these, combined with the nar- 
rative upon the map and the inscription on the ancient 
portrait, completely establish the fact that John Cabot, the 
Venetian, was, in 1497, the discoverer of North America, 
under a commission from Henry VII. This- portion of 
historical truth, which has hitherto certainly been sur- 
rounded with much obscurity and apparent contradiction, 
and of late absolutely denied by the biographer of Cabot, 
has now, we trust, been established upon grounds which 
cannot easily be shaken. 



THE END* 



h> 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




